Political Struggle and Confrontations Following the Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople

Political Struggle and Confrontations

Following the Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople

 

After the Islamic conquest of Constantinople, the star of a brilliant leader, Muhammad II el Fatih, also known as Mehmet II, had been rising. Muhammad II sent his delegates, carrying precious gifts and captive slaves, informing Mamluk Sultan Inal of this victory. The Sultan rejoiced and responded with a congratulatory letter. Egyptian cities were decorated, the Sultani cannons fired at Saladin’s citadel, and festivities took place. Under the surface, powerful currents were swirling unseen, and this conquest was followed up by much instability.

Outline of the Ottoman Empire, from the Theatro d'el Orbe de la Tierra de Abraham Ortelius, Antwerp, 1602, updated from the 1570 edition

• Europe’s Response to the Islamic Conquest of Constantinople

The reaction of Western Europe to the Ottoman conquest was furious and bitter. It was not surprising that the trade routes from Western Asia to Western Europe through the Black Sea, Anatolia, and the straits collapsed. This conquest challenged Venice's economic position within the region and threatened the existence of the Venetian colonies of Crete and Negroponte. The papacy restricted Christian merchants from dealing with Muslims. The Levant and Egypt had been important markets where Venetian trade had been tax-exempt. Trade with the Mamluks was Venice’s main engine. The effects were dramatic, and European merchants were no longer able to flock to the Egyptian and Levantine coasts and markets.

Mamluks and Italians. Renaissance painting by Giovanni Mansueti “Scenes from the Life of St Mark”

But it did not take long for the Italian attitude to be entirely reshaped. Venice’s economic ties with the Mamluks took precedence over concern with the Ottoman threat. When two ministers of sea affairs demanded the postponement of the scheduled voyage of large Venetian round-ships to Syria, the senate allowed the round-ships to depart as planned. In December 1462, five Venetian ministers proposed in the Senate a motion that was to initiate a long-lasting Venetian embargo against the Ottoman Empire. Business with the Mamluks was resumed and with the strong demand came a rising level of trade. Venice and the Italian states worked on strengthening their relations with the Mamluks. In 1485, negotiations for closer relations between Venice and Cairo were held. In 1496, a treaty was concluded between Florence and the Circassian-Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay. Muslim traders and merchants were highly active in the Mediterranean. However, Egypt and Italy faced another blow. In 1487, the world changed after the Portuguese reached the coasts of the Indian Ocean following their discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. Egypt and Italy lost their important commercial positions. At the same time, Ottoman ambitions and horizons began to expand.

•  Situation in the Mamluk Sultanate

By the late 15th century, the Mamluk Sultanate suffered from maladministration by weak sultans and corrupt emirs. There were troubles caused by the public along with economic decline, frequent plagues, and environmental disasters such as drought, which devastated agriculture. The Egypt-born Baalbaki historian Al Maqrizi captured the realities of life for most Egyptians: People were going hungry, and food, though available, was not being distributed. This was due to inflated prices, bribery, high taxes, and an unstable currency. Regarding economic functions, the Mamluk government suffered from monopoly, corruption, and tyranny of officials, as well as neglect of agricultural lands. The Iqta’ system controlled most of the agricultural land in Egypt and the Levant. The leasing and sale of land of Bayt al Maal became common. The Mamluk state was on the verge of financial collapse. Sultans Barquq and Qaitbay introduced fiscal reforms, but these caused a financial crisis due to the depletion of the treasury, especially the revenues from Kharaj lands. To make matters worse, the public was unhappy about the freedom and privileges given to the Europeans. In the decades after, Mamluk slave soldiers dominated the people, so they used to buy from merchants in the markets without paying them. Theft and prostitution became widespread.

Emblem of Sultan Qaitbay on the facade of the caravanserai and public fountain of Sultan Qaitbay in Cairo. Emblem reads: Abul Nasr Qaitbay, Glory to our Lord, the Sultan, Al Malik Al Ashraf, May his victory be glorified. Photographs taken by Simon Rousselot in November 2019.

•    Mamluk-Ottoman Rivalry

The golden days of the Mamluks were now pages of the past. This was no longer the powerful sultanate of Baybars and Qalawun. The Mamluk Empire was no longer achieving significant military victories. The continuous Ottoman success and acquiring more lands increased their popularity. This worried the Mamluk Sultans. The Arabs of Granada, facing the Catholic threat, turned their requests to the Ottomans with a delegation arriving at the court of Muhammad II after the Mamluks showed no significant response to their pleas. The Ottomans, who started taking up global Muslim causes, turned their gaze to the Levant and the Mamluk borders to secure their trade routes. In September 1465, Doge Christophoro Moro of Venice, who was at war with Ottoman Sultan Muhammad II, sent a letter to King Edward IV of England, mentioning that Egyptian merchants on his vessels were mistreated by knights working on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan. This might have been intended as an affront to Mamluk Sultan Khushqadam. On the 9th of October 1467, the Mamluk Sultan passed away and Qaitbay ascended to the throne. Qaitbay, already not a fan of the Ottomans, was skeptical of Muhammad II. A dangerous level of hostility started building up, especially after Muhammad II’s letter to Qaitbay where he hinted that the Mamluk Sultan was his 'enemy'. During this period, the Ottomans approached closer to the borders of the Mamluks. The relations between the two states were clearly strained. In one of the visits, the Ottoman ambassador, contrary to the norm, refused to kneel to the Mamluk Sultan. The two Empires were almost at the brink of war.

•    Mamluks between the Ottomans and Safavids

In 1488, the Turkish ruler of the Safavid order, Haydar, was killed in a conflict with the Shirvanshahs, the Arab Kings of Shirvan in modern-day Azerbaijan. His son, Ismail, went into hiding until he reached his early teens. At the heart of the Ottoman-Mamluk rivalry, Ismail started rising to power, securing lands until he conquered Iran in the early 1500s. Ismail, also known as Al Safawi or Sophy, set his eyes on the Levant. Aleppo was the key point in the Mamluk defensive system, both against the Safavids and against the Ottomans.

Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri ("Campson Gavro re d'Egitto") by Florentine painter Cristofano dell'Altissimo, Galleria degli Uffizi

In 1507, the Mamluk Vice-Sultan paraded the Syrian troops in Aleppo. The Safawid army had crossed the Euphrates in October and met the Mamluk army of Emir Ali Dülat. The Mamluk historian Ibn Iyas mentioned that the Safawids were defeated. These events took place in the presence of an Ottoman envoy in Cairo. Sultan Qansuh Al Ghouri bestowed robes of honour on him, and he was sent back to the Ottoman Sultan bearing the news. In December, Ismail I sent his envoys to the Mamluk Sultan with an apology letter emphasizing that the incident was not intended and that the Safawid soldiers lost their way. Keeping his doubts aside, the Mamluk Sultan accepted the apology and returned Safawid prisoners to Iran. Ibn Iyas commented: 

The Safavid envoys were very impudent; they wore red conical caps on their heads but were not as elegant as the Ottomans.

Meanwhile, tension continued to build up between the Mamluks, Ottomans, and Safawids. In March 1511, after Ismail I defeated and killed Özbeg Khan, a Tartar chieftain, he sent his envoys to Cairo. They arrived in Damascus in May 1511 and in Cairo in June of the same year. The letter of Ismail I was read in the presence of the Mamluk Emirs. When the gift box presented to the Sultan was opened, they found inside the head of Ozbeg Khän. Ismail's gift had its dangerous and unequivocal implications. The Shah was indirectly telling Al Ghouri that he was an old man who could not participate in battle and that he must leave the Mamluk Sultanate to vigorous men, like Shah Ismail, who can kill his enemies on the battlefield. The Mamluk Sultan was furious because Ismail I’s letter contained abusive verses insulting him. The Mamluk-Safawid relations went from bad to worse. In April of the following year, the Safawid infantry battalions rampaging in Mamluk domains were defeated by the Mamluk Emir of Sis. He then sent ten Safawid heads with red conical caps to the Sultan in Cairo. Al Ghouri immediately ordered these heads to be stuck on lances and put on display in the streets of Cairo, and finally to be hung on the gates of Bab Al Futuh and Bab Al Nasr.

Mosaic depicting the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 from Chehel Sotoun palace, Isfahan

 

No doubt, Shah Ismail was unhappy about this. He sent his delegation to Cairo with a letter to the Mamluk Sultan containing abusive words. Al Ghouri was enraged and sent the delegation back to Iran in less than a month with a letter containing abusive words. Al Ghouri, a man of experience, was more aware of Ismail I’s intentions than the Ottomans were. In July, Bayezid II (originally Abu Yazid) died, and Al Ghouri mourned him, ordering prayers in the mosques of Al Azhar, Al Hakem, and others. The Mamluks were saved from a definite clash with the Safawids because the circle of conflict was transferred to the Ottoman axis. The Ottomans did not want the Safawids to defeat the weak Mamluks and control the Islamic Holy cities. In 1514, the Ottomans and Safawids met at Chaldiran. Ismail I was defeated, and Selim I, also known as Yavuz Selim or Selim the Grim, entered Tabriz. When the news of the Ottoman victory arrived, Al Ghouri ordered the Quran to be recited in some of the mosques of Cairo and Fustat. But he did not order the drums to be beaten and did not declare that Cairo should be decorated in celebration of this occasion. The reason was obvious. The Mamluk Sultan was aware of the consequences of such a victory and realized that he would drink from the same cup as Ismail I.

Ottoman painting showing the head of Mamluk Sultan aAl Ghouri being remitted to Selim I

 

Following his victory, Selim I turned his attention to the Mamluks. He met Al-Ghouri in Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo, where the Mamluks were defeated, and their Sultan was killed on the battlefield. Selim I then marched to Egypt, conquering Cairo after the Battle of Al Raydaniya, bringing an end to the Mamluk Sultanate.

Bibliography

• Aylon, D. (1987). The End of the Mamluk Sultanate: (Why did the Ottomans Spare the Mamluks of Egypt and Wipe out the Mamluks of Syria?)

• Rabie, H. (1978). Relations Between the Safavids of Persia, the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria in the Early Sixteenth Century.

• Stantchev, S. (2010). Devedo: The Venetian Response to Sultan Mehmet II in the Venetian Ottoman Conflict of 1462-79.

• Walker, J. B. (2008). Popular Responses to Mamluk Fiscal Reforms in Syria.

• Wansbrough, J (1965). Venice and Florence in the Mamluk Commercial Privileges

•  Winter, M. (1980). Turks, Arabs and Mamluks in the army of Ottoman Egypt.

 

About me

Natalie Mallat is a freelance writer with a particular interest in Medieval Arab history. She enjoys running the history blog www.bibliotecanatalie.com. You can follow her Instagram @medievalarabhistory and LinkedIn @bibliotecanatalie for regular posts.

Pygmalion

Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw

The Power of Language: Shaw's Critique of Social Stratification in Pygmalion

 

Currently, we are examining Pygmalion, a renowned play from the Victorian Era, written by George Bernard Shaw and performed in 1913. In 1956, the theatrical adaptation of Pygmalion, titled My Fair Lady, premiered, and in 1964, a film featuring Audrey Hepburn in the lead role was released. The movie eventually secured eight Oscar Awards, notably clinching the Best Picture category.  Shaw, unlike many Victorian playwrights, often employed anticlimactic endings to challenge audience expectations and encourage new perspectives. To fully grasp plays from this era, understanding the historical context is crucial. I have shared a relevant blog on the Victorian Age.

 

George Bernard Shaw

Bernard Shaw, one of the most renowned playwrights, was born in 1856 and died in 1950. He was born in Dublin into a prosperous family. However, his father's failings led to the family's loss of status. When he was 16, his family separated, and his mother and sister moved to London. After four years of working various jobs, he also moved to London. He lived with his mother until he got married at the age of 42. Striving to make a living in London, he wrote five novels in six years, all of which were rejected by publishing companies. Additionally, he produced reviews of music, art, books, and drama, and wrote more than fifty plays in his career. In 1925, Shaw was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The 'fashionable drama' of the day has become increasingly unsatisfactory. Some believe that the current drama is unrelated to present-day issues. It is referred to as modern and realistic by some.

Shaw held the view that art ought not to be created merely for its own sake. Instead, he believed in the instructive nature of art, asserting that it should serve a purpose in shaping and improving society.

 

Characters in the Play

Flower Girl (Eliza Doolittle)

Women from the lower classes often made a living by selling flowers in London's open markets, restaurants, or going door-to-door. Someone like Eliza Doolittle would have earned around 38 pounds a year, while a lady working in a shop could bring in up to 300 pounds annually.

Mr. Higgins and Phonetics

In Pygmalion, Henry Higgins, a central figure, specializes in phonetics. During this era, a person's distinct pronunciation is influenced by either their regional or social origins. Additionally, it is shaped by the phonetic patterns ingrained in the speaker's native language, which may manifest when they speak another language. Henry Higgins uses proper English, the widely acknowledged standard form, and articulates his words meticulously, even when delivering insults. He selects his words with precision. On the other hand, Eliza communicates in the Cockney dialect, specific to London's impoverished working class, characterized by unique pronunciation and vocabulary.

Alfred Doolittle

Eliza's father is a dustman with a sonorous voice and Welsh accent, who proudly believes in his position as a member of the "undeserving".

 

Colonel Pickering

A respected former military officer with expertise in spoken Sanskrit visited England to meet the renowned Professor Henry Higgins. He displayed politeness towards Eliza and actively participated in Higgins' phonetics experiments aimed at instructing Eliza to speak like a duchess.

Mrs. Higgins

Henry Higgins’ mother thoroughly loves her son but also thoroughly disapproves of his manners, language and behaviours

Mrs. Eyensford-Hill

A woman from the upper-middle class who finds herself in somewhat challenging circumstances but is determined to maintain her refinement. She has two children.

Clara Eyensford-Hill

Her daughter, who tries to act the role of modern, advanced young person.

Freddy Eyensford-Hill

Her son, a pleasant young man, is enchanted by Eliza upon first meeting her.

Mrs. Pearce

Professor Higgins’s housekeeper for a long standing, she is the one who first sees the difficulty of what is to happen to Eliza after Higgins and Pickering have finished their experiment.

 

In my view, the play's central conflict revolves around a social issue, deviating from the typical happy resolution seen in comedies. Poverty in Edwardian Britain takes centre stage, turning Pygmalion into a problem play that addresses social inequality, particularly between men and women. Shaw suggests that Eliza Doolittle's chance at a better life depends on her participation in an experiment orchestrated by an affluent upper-class man, highlighting the persistent presence of poverty and stark disparities in wealth and opportunities between social classes. Shaw aimed to challenge and change this condition through Pygmalion. The play struggles with the issue which is in Britain and the problem is mainly related to women and their social status. For instance, Henry Higgins saved Eliza from the pavement of London, where she struggled to survive as a flower seller. He transformed her into a middle-class woman in reaction to the bet. Then, When he changes her clothing, accent and manners, she gains impressive success. Shaw challenges this view that social status supports the oppressive condition of the working classes. But we observe that rising social class is ambiguous. Therefore, when Eliza has been turned into a lady, Mrs. Higgins asks her son and Colonel Pickering, “What’s going to happen to her now?”

 

The play perfectly reflects the social norms of the Victorian era. The issue of education, which remains a common problem in our times, was a fundamental theme in the play. We observe the impact it has on a person's life through the teaching of correct pronunciation and good manners. The focal point of the play is the issue of social identity, reflected prominently in linguistic speech, which plays a crucial role in Eliza's transformation. Shaw uses accents not only as a marker of social status but also as a determinant of social acceptability, serving as the primary vehicle for his social critique in Pygmalion.

Arrogant

Higgins treats Eliza poorly, and this mistreatment is related to class distinction. Unlike Colonel Pickering, whose manners are uniformly pleasant, Higgins, even after Eliza wins the bet for him at the party, refers to her as a 'guttersnipe.

Morality

Another important aspect is middle-class morality. Bernard Shaw demonstrates a distinction between the higher class and the lower class through Doolittle. Likewise, he emphasizes that middle-class morality is inappropriate for lower-class people through the character of Alfred Doolittle. He does not want to be rich because he does not want responsibilities; he just wants money from Higgins, no other work. He lives with numerous women without marrying them. Eventually, he has to marry. He is reluctant to bear these responsibilities and prefers his former life. These attitudes relate to work responsibilities and morality that accompany the middle class.

Transformation

Eliza undergoes a remarkable change from a modest flower seller with a Cockney accent to a woman capable of blending into the upper class. With Higgins' guidance, she not only refines her speech, attire, and manners but also becomes a confident and assertive individual. Eliza's transformation extends beyond superficial changes, as she defies Higgins' objections to pursue her own path. She opens a flower shop and forms a relationship with Freddy, showcasing her newfound independence and resilience.

She no longer lives her life as Higgins.

 

Shaw explores the significant role of accent as a key factor in determining social identity and acceptance in a humorous way. Eliza's dialogue highlights a comedic contrast between the content of her speech and the manner in which she expresses herself, underscoring the societal importance placed on linguistic distinctions. Eliza's social identity has been altered by Higgins. Both Alfred Doolittle and Eliza become capable of playing the social roles of a lady and a gentleman as Alfred Doolittle gains wealth. Shaw contends that gentility is more than just money and the arbitrary stipulations of social behaviour. In the final act of the play; Eliza stresses to Higgins that when a child is brought to a foreign country, it picks up the language in a few weeks, and forgets its own. I have forgotten my language and can speak nothing but yours.

 

Conclusion

George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion stands as a thought-provoking piece that defies the conventions of Victorian-era plays. Shaw's departure from traditional happy endings and his deliberate incorporation of anticlimactic conclusions underscore his commitment to challenging societal norms and prompting audiences to reconsider their perspectives.

 George Bernard Shaw 

https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw16600/George-Bernard-Shaw

 

 

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Transcendentalism

The Flourishing of American Literature

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Transcendentalism

During the 1830s and 1840s, the frontier of American society moved westward, prompting writers such as Brackenridge and Cooper to find inspiration in the Western frontier for their literary works and American life. During this period, Boston and its surrounding towns and villages buzzed with intellectual fervour and energy. Education was no longer limited to Harvard in nearby Cambridge; other institutions also demonstrated a strong commitment to learning. The influential North American Review, established by Harvard professor Edward Channing in 1818, actively disseminated ideas, although it had become somewhat conservative by this time. Beginning in 1826, itinerant speakers have disseminated insights on culture and science to urban areas as well as the rural landscapes of New England. The establishment of entities such as the Useful Knowledge Society, Natural History Society, and the Mercantile Library Association played a pivotal role in cultivating a culture of regular attendance at lectures among numerous residents in New England. The younger generation engaged in extensive discussions about the emergence of a 'new Spiritual era.' Dissatisfied with conventional patriotism, the young intellectuals in Boston were uninterested in America's power and wealth, instead seeking a deeper exploration of the inner life. They examined the philosophers from Greece, Germany, and India. Several individuals documented their experiences and emotions in personal journals, while some embraced vegetarianism or nudism. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Transcendentalism is an idealistic idea in New England based on the fundamental unity of all creation, the innate goodness of humanity, and the belief in the superiority of inner experience over external circumstances. They saw both religions as "negative, cold, lifeless".  While they held Christ in high regard for the wisdom conveyed in his teachings, they considered the works of Shakespeare and renowned philosophers to be equally significant. The Transcendentalists tried to find the truth through feeling and intuition rather than through logic. They regarded nature as their "guiding scripture" in numerous aspects. The significance of birds, clouds, trees, and snow held a special meaning for them, forming a unique language through these natural images. Transcendentalists were split into two factions: one focused on societal change, and the other, exemplified by figures such as Emerson and Thoreau, prioritized individual concerns. In 1837, Emerson delivered a renowned address at Harvard University titled "The American Scholar." In this speech, he criticized the sway of tradition and the past while advocating for a fresh wave of American ingenuity. According to Emerson, the term "scholar" did not denote someone steeped in conventional book knowledge but rather an individual with original thinking abilities. Such a person understood themselves through intuition and the exploration of nature, not merely through the study of written works. He revised Self-Reliance (1841), which stands out as one of the most renowned lectures/essays and continues to be extensively studied in American high schools today.

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)

He criticized the Transcendentalists for overlooking the uncertainties that cast shadows over the world. His story "Celestial Railroad" (1843) is a satirical take on Christian, the protagonist from John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress." Hawthorne consistently explores the theme of individuals within societal contexts rather than focusing solely on the depiction of individuals in natural settings. His characters often harbour concealed feelings of guilt or personal issues that set them apart from others. These individuals grapple with emotions such as pride, envy, or a longing for revenge. Hawthorne's fascination with the darker aspects of the human psyche leads him to craft narratives reminiscent of the Gothic novel tradition. Hawthorne meticulously delves into the psychology of his characters in his initial novel, Fanshawe (1828), where themes of isolation and futility take centre stage. The narrative revolves around a young prodigy who passes away prior to achieving a monumental artistic feat. Attempting to emulate the prevalent Gothic fiction of the era, the novel is regarded by Hawthorne as a disappointment. Hawthorne's best work usually has a strong feeling for the Puritan past of seventeenth-century New England. This is the setting of The Scarlet Letter (1850), considered his masterpiece.

The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde

 Oscar Wilde

The Importance of Being Earnest

A Trivial Comedy for Serious People

Introduction

In this blog, we will explore the theme of 'The Importance of Being Earnest' and reflect on Victorian norms as portrayed in the play. Specifically, we will examine Oscar Wilde’s use of unique characterizations to critique Victorian social values and morals. In my previous blog, we discussed the Victorian Period briefly. Before reading this article, you should take a glance at it to understand this blog and engage with it. Furthermore, I am going to provide some information about Oscar Wilde. From my perspective, we encounter his tempestuous life in the play. Wilde is primarily remembered for his flamboyant lifestyle and outrageous behaviour. He was tried and convicted of homosexual practices and subsequently sentenced to two years of hard labour in what came to be known as the trial of the century.

 

The Author: Oscar Wilde

Oscar Wilde, who was born on October 16, 1854, in Dublin, Ireland, was poet, author and playwright in the Victorian Period. Wilde was keen on books, poets and poems, he lectured on poetry, and art criticism, and was a prominent advocate for aesthetic principles. He produced a lot of works such as Lady Windermere's Fan (1893), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1899) and The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). However, The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), which was one of his most lasting works, stands out as a masterpiece of modern comedy. “A comedy of manners” is defined as a genre that focuses on the social conduct and behaviour of individuals within an exceptionally refined upper-class society. Oscar Wilde, who primarily focused on the lower classes or social conditions, opted to satirize the lives of the English elite. His characters embodied typical Victorian snobbery.

 

“Oscar took the ball of talk wherever it happened to be and played with it so humorously that everyone was soon smiling delightedly.”

Frank Haris

OSCAR WILDE

The Play

We notice Wilde's wit expressed in diverse forms, notably through puns. A prime illustration of this is evident in the dual significance of the term 'earnest,' functioning both as a male name and an adjective denoting seriousness. Wilde perceived "earnestness" as a fundamental ideal within Victorian culture. He considered that British society is reserved and conservative. He concerned with the maintenance of social norms. The Importance of Being Earnest illustrates the constraints and discontentment resulting from such a lifestyle. Wilde's cleverness is apparent in his use of epigrams: brief, clever expressions. As an example, consider a scene where Jack declares his intention to propose to Gwendolen in town, and Algernon quips, "I had come up for pleasure? I call that business. I don't see anything in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love. The very essence of romance is uncertainty. If I ever get married, I will certainly try to forget the fact." The Importance of Being Earnest pursues various objectives, satirizing both the aristocracy and the literary realm. Additionally, it accomplishes this in a humorous manner while establishing some of the most memorable characters in English theatre history.

 

“Life is too important to be taken seriously”

Oscar Wilde

To be “earnest” means to be serious, and the main character (John/Jack) uses the name “earnest” when he is in the city. The play critiques the moral and social values of the Victorian era, utilizing Oscar Wilde's clever use of wit, puns, exaggeration, and wordplay to craft humour. Its classification falls under the genre of satire. The play includes 3 Acts. “Bunburging” is utilizing an alias to avoid being bound by social obligations. 

Lady Bracknell: mother of “Gwendolen” Gwendolen: wants to marry a man named “Earnest” Cecily: Jack’s ward Miss Prim: Cecyl’s governess.

Main Characters:

John Worthing: “Jack”-“Earnest”

Algernon Monterief: Jack’s friend.

Lane: the butler for Algernon.

Rev. Chousible: the preacher in the country.

Identity Migration in Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest

The idea of Victorian society portrayed by Wilde is not a visual representation, but rather a play that deals with issues of doubleness, conformity, and identity migration. Wilde's society in the late Victorian era revolved around middle-class moral values and the importance of maintaining outward appearances and adhering to social norms. In an era where the commonplace wish was to be held in esteem, especially in the pursuit of peer approval, the demands were exceptionally intense. The societal values and propriety standards were deeply rooted in religious beliefs, creating a pervasive influence. Consequently, individuals aspiring to conform experienced a pervasive sense of duality. In the play, Wilde cautions against the necessity of adopting a serious demeanour for societal acceptance and adhering to societal expectations. By portraying characters leading double lives, Wilde criticizes the constraints of his society. These characters carve out a separate realm to evade moral judgment and societal norms, leading to a concept of identity migration between different facets of themselves—an identity that is both intrinsic, personal, and self-fashioned. It is evident that earnestness holds significant importance in Victorian society, and Wilde uses this to underscore his societal critique. In Victorian society, seriousness holds great significance, but Wilde employs the concept of doubleness to satirize it. Within the play, the characters undergo a journey of identity exploration, showcasing the duality and the quest for self-discovery as they transition between different facets of their personalities. Jack Worthing's identity migration is the most obvious and occurs only at the end of the play. Identity migrants in the play are not exclusive to Jack and Algernon. Women can still have their own marginal identities despite their gender identities being limited.

·         Gwendolen is consistently observed by her mother, while Cecily is closely supervised by Miss Prism. As an example, Cecily fabricates a romantic relationship with 'Earnest' that doesn't necessitate him sending her letters. This highlights the depth of her longing to fantasize and seek a means of liberation from her domestic environment.

 

·         Miss Prim experienced the tragedy of losing a child, authored a novel, and has been leading a concealed existence as Cecily's governess within the residences of different individuals. The loss occurred during the infancy of the child, and her writing serves as a means of retreat, offering a clandestine, if not secluded, existence in an in-between realm.

“I can resist everything except temptation.”

Oscar Wilde

Gwendolen and Cecily, much like Jack, Algernon, and Miss Prim, transition from a public persona to a more personal one by engaging in separate and concealed lifestyles. They establish a secure haven where their deepest and personal desires can thrive, shielded from the oppressive and hypocritical norms of Victorian society that compel them to adopt artificial and restricted personas. They cannot maintain their self-identities. It is evident that Oscar Wilde defied boundaries and struggled to create his own identity, breaking the traditional norms of Victorian society. He resisted his duties as a proper Victorian husband and pursued relationships with men, which ultimately led to his death. Wilde expressed his frustration with a society that valued appearances above all things in his plays. Jack Worthing is introduced as he adopts the fictional identity of his imaginary sibling, Ernest Worthing, in the city, seeking a temporary respite from his duties to Cecily and his societal obligations. Likewise, Algernon has crafted a fictitious character, the ailing "Bunbury," as a means to elude both his creditors and his aunt, Augusta. Nevertheless, their forays into alternate identities proved to be short-lived. Lady Bracknell represents the embodiment of Victorian society, and both Algernon and Jack are acutely conscious of her authority in shaping their identities and the importance of gaining her approval. Gwendolen emphatically states, 'The only genuinely secure name is Earnest,' and despite Jack's initial resistance, he ultimately realizes the necessity of conforming to this notion. The underlying message is evident: in the Victorian era, women are constrained to choose a partner named 'Earnest' to feel secure and be able to uphold society's ideals with a sense of freedom.

Conclusion

Oscar Wilde's "The Importance of Being Earnest" stands as a timeless masterpiece, captivating readers and audiences alike with its witty dialogue, satirical humour, and clever social commentary. Through the lens of farce and irony, Wilde skillfully explores the absurdities of Victorian society, poking fun at its rigid conventions and hypocritical norms. 

The Victorian Period: A Journey into the Time of Change

 The Victorian Period: A Journey into the Time of Change

The era spanned from 1837 to 1901 and was named after Queen Victoria, who reigned over the United Kingdom during this period. The Victorian Period was a period of significant social, economic and technological change in Britain. Due to the impact of industrialism, the wealth level increased in Britain, and London became the most important city in Europe. The population of London increased by roughly 2 to 6 million. Furthermore, we can observe that shift from the ownership of the land to the modern urban economy. However, in the Victorian era, people experienced anxiety due to a sense of being displaced individuals in an age of technological advances.

 

Queen Victoria

From 1837-1901, Queen Victoria was ruler of England. We can define this period as an age of “transition”, and an age characterized by energy and high moral purpose. We need to pay attention to certain qualities associated with the “Victorian Era” such as earnestness moral responsibility, and domestic property. Victoria, as a young wife and mother to nine children, exemplified the domestic loyalties cherished by her citizens. Even in the four decades that followed her husband's passing in 1861, she continued to represent these values as the Widow of Windsor, donning black attire. She was the first British monarch to have her picture taken. The accessibility and affordability of reproducing these images helped her effectively represent her country's identity during her reign. After Queen Victoria's death, there was a reaction that sought to question many achievements of the previous era. This reinforced the idea that the Victorian age was truly distinct and separate in history.

The Early Victorian Period (1830-1848)

In 1830, as wealth levels increased, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened, marking the world's first public railway line. Within 20 years, railway lines connected England's major cities. By 1900, England boasted 15,195 miles of railway lines and an underground rail system that facilitated the growth of commerce and reduced distances. The Reform Bill of 1823 altered the English class and social structure and extended the right to vote for all males, owing to property. The second Reform Bill was enacted in 1867, it extended the right to vote working class. The challenges faced in both the economic and social aspects during the process of industrialization were so significant that the period between the 1830s and 1840s came to be known as the Time of Troubles. Between 1830 and 1840. We come across The Time of Troubles in which unemployment and poverty broke out. It brought about rebellions. For the working class, particularly children and women, conditions were terrible. The mine and factory owners saw themselves as free from any blame for these conditions, as they strongly believed in the laissez-faire economic theory. This theory held that unregulated working conditions would eventually benefit all parties involved. This Time of Troubles left its mark on some early Victorian literature.

The Mid-Victorian Period (1830’s and 1830’s)

This period was a time of prosperity, improvement, stability, and optimism. In 1881, Prince Albert opened the 'Great Exhibition' in Hyde Park. Furthermore, the Crystal Palace, built according to modern architectural principles, symbolized the triumphs of the Victorian industry. The immigration movement increased to British colonies between 1853 and 1880. In 1857, the British government took over India, and Queen Victoria became Empress of India. As a result, Christianity spread in India, Africa, and Asia. The evangelical movement emphasized the spiritual transformation of the individual through conversion and a moral Christian life. The High Church defended the importance of tradition, ritual, and authority. The Broad Church was open to modern ideas. At the same time that the British missionary enterprise was expanding, there was increasing debate about religious belief. During the mid-Victorian era, the Church of England underwent significant changes and came to be characterized by three main factions: The Evangelical Church, the Broad Church, and the High Church.

·         The Evangelical movement emphasized the spiritual transformation of the individual through conversion and a moral Christian life.

·         The High Church defended the importance of tradition, ritual, and authority.

·         The Broad Church was open to modern ideas.

Some rationalist challenges to religious belief that developed before the Victorian period maintained their influence. The most significant was Utilitarianism, also known as Benthamism or Philosophical Radicalism. Utilitarianism derived from the thought of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and his disciple, James Mill (1773-1836), the father of John Stuart Mill. It failed to recognize people's spirituality. It was a rationalist test of value. During the mid-Victorian era, the field of biology pushed humanity even deeper into insignificance. Charles Darwin's influential work, The Origin of Species (1859), was met with various interpretations by the general public. While some mistakenly believed that evolution meant continuous progress, the majority of readers understood that Darwin's theory of natural selection not only contradicted the biblical notion of creation but also challenged long-standing beliefs about humanity's unique position in the world.

 

The Late Victorian Period (1870-1901)

The last phase of the Victorian Age is more difficult to categorize, for there are a lot of issues to impact this period. Bismarck’s Germany and the United States became rival powers. The decay of Victorian values brought about new ideas and lifestyles. For lots of affluent Victorians, this final phase of the century was a time of serenity and security, the age of house parties and long weekends in the country. During the last decades of the century, British imperialism reached its peak. However, the true price of maintaining the empire became more evident through uprisings, brutal incidents, and unsuccessful military campaigns. Examples include the Indian Mutiny of 1857 and the Jamaica Rebellion of 1865. Under the leadership of Disraeli, in 1867, a second Reform Bill was successfully enacted. This bill expanded the voting rights to certain segments of the working class. This, along with the subsequent growth of trade unions, established labour as a formidable political entity that encompassed various forms of socialism. Due to severe economic depressions in 1873 and 1874, the rate of emigration increased to an alarming extent. Another change in the mid-Victorian balance of power was the growth of labour as a political and economic force. The literature of this final phase of Victorianism indicates a significant shift in attitudes. Late Victorian writers took a stand against the major mid-Victorian figures to express the change. The nineties, in this era, aesthetic movement started and the works, which were written in the term, reflected melancholy. Furthermore, in literature, the modern movement started. Of course, the changes were not in evidence everywhere. Victorian standards were breaking down on several fronts.