The U-2 Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis, and Vietnam: Cold War at Its Hottest

On May 16, 1960, it was decided that a Summit Conference would be held in Paris among America, the Soviet Union, Britain, France, and West Germany. However, this conference could not take place. Just shortly before the planned summit, on May 5, 1960, Soviet leader Khrushchev announced that an American U-2 spy plane had been shot down within Soviet borders. This incident, which went down in history as the U-2 Crisis, led to the cancellation of the conference and once again negatively affected the relations between the superpowers.

A Lockheed U-2 in flight

There is a very clear conclusion we must draw from this: In diplomacy, two plus two definitely does not equal four. While peace is discussed at the table, different dynamics always continue to operate in the background. Perhaps such crises experienced in the past have played a massive role in the extensive development of today's modern intelligence networks.

As a result of the space race that emerged between America and the Soviets, America began producing U-2 spy planes to gather intelligence. On May 1, 1960, one of these U-2 planes took off from the İncirlik Base in Adana (Türkiye) and entered Soviet territory, but was shot down by the Soviets as it descended. In fact, when we think about it in the context of intelligence wars, we can say that this and similar incidents are perhaps still continuing today in different forms.

John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) and Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) in Vienna, Austria in May 1961

The Cuban Missile Crisis

After Fidel Castro took power in 1959, Cuba’s relations with the Soviets strengthened in the years 1960-1961. Meanwhile, starting in 1962, the Soviets began placing missiles in Cuba without the rest of the world knowing. Look at this: people who wanted to save their own country and its freedom suddenly became almost like puppets of the Soviets, starting to place missiles in their country with the range to strike America. I leave the judgment to you. By the way, do not misunderstand, I am not defending America, but these are the historical facts.

In his speech on October 22, 1962, US President Kennedy announced that the Soviets had secretly placed nuclear missiles on Cuban soil. Upon this, the US Navy took action and blockaded Cuba. This situation brought the two superpowers to the brink of a nuclear war. However, the immense danger such a war would unleash, and the realization by the US and Soviet Russia that they had reached a balance in political and military fields, prevented a hot conflict. In exchange for removing the missiles in Cuba, the Soviets demanded that America remove its Jupiter missiles located in Türkiye. America accepted this proposal, and the crisis subsided. Following this massive crisis, the famous “Red Telephone” hotline was established between Soviet Russia and America on June 20, 1963, specifically to prevent misunderstandings during periods of crisis.

American POWs recently released from North Vietnamese prison camps, 1973

The Vietnam War

For the full background on Vietnam's colonial history and the Indochina War, see our earlier post: The End of Empires: Indian Independence, Vietnam, and the African Awakening

An important symbol of resistance that we probably all know, which has been the subject of movies, and where America failed. Following the end of the Japanese occupation after World War II, a war broke out between communists and nationalists in Vietnam, a former French colony. When France withdrew from Vietnam, with the involvement of the United Nations, the region was divided into North and South, with the 17th parallel accepted as the border. The war began with the communists in the North attacking the South and gained an international dimension with America's intervention. As North Vietnamese troops entered the south, America deployed soldiers to the region; however, this development was seen as baseless and meaningless by the American public, drawing significant backlash.

Following talks in Paris, the Vietnam Peace Accords were signed in January 1973. The political rapprochement of the Soviets and China with America played a significant role in the signing of this treaty. Although the Vietnam War initially seemed likely to improve China-Soviet relations, it actually heightened the power struggle within the communist bloc and caused new disputes during the détente period. Ultimately, America failed in its strategy to keep Vietnam divided, and North and South Vietnam united in 1975 to become the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

The Backdrop of the War and Muhammad Ali's Historic Stance

Historical Retrospective • Special Feature

On the political front of the war, the US began peace talks with North Vietnam in Paris in 1968, and the new US President Richard Nixon decided to withdraw American troops from Vietnam. Interestingly, however, while deciding to withdraw, the US military intensified its attacks in order to force Vietnam to the peace table.

This bloody and seemingly senseless war created massive rifts within American society as well. One of the greatest symbols of this was Muhammad Ali (1942-2016), one of the most famous boxers of all time. Despite being drafted into the Vietnam War, the legendary boxer refused to fight and spoke those historic words etched in memory:

"I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong." (The Viet Cong never did me any wrong that I should fight them.)

Muhammad Ali's honorable and anti-war stance caused him to pay a heavy price. He was stripped of his world championship title, his boxing license was revoked, and he was banned from participating in official matches for 3 years. Enduring all of this and later regaining his license to take the boxing world by storm once again, Muhammad Ali passed away on June 3, 2016.

The Détente Era: Ping-Pong Diplomacy, SALT, and the Helsinki Accords

We have covered World War I, World War II, and left the Cold War behind; we are now slowly approaching the present day. We will begin this block with the meaning, origins, and emergence of the Détente period. After briefly discussing the effects of this era, we will touch upon America's visit to Beijing, namely Ping-Pong Diplomacy, followed by the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Finally, we will complete this section with the Helsinki Final Act.

The Détente period refers to a historical era during the Cold War when conflict and tension in East-West relations decreased. We can also consider this period as a result of contemporary developments, often referred to as the “age of negotiations.” After the Cuban Missile Crisis, the US and the Soviets stepping back from the brink of a nuclear war pushed both states to pursue a tension-reducing and softer policy. Accordingly, after the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, both states stepped back from the brink and gradually shifted toward a softer policy, with the SALT I talks in 1969 widely accepted as the actual beginning of the Détente period. In this context, the transition from conventional weapons to nuclear weapons was a significant factor in the emergence of this policy. (All kinds of classic weapons used by land, sea, and air forces, excluding nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, are referred to as conventional weapons.)

Leonid Brezhnev (left), Viktor Sukhodrev (center), and Richard Nixon (right) during Brezhnev's 1973 visit to Washington

Now we move on to America’s visit to Beijing, namely Ping-Pong Diplomacy. China’s foreign policy progressed along the lines of cooperating with Third World countries. As a matter of fact, China was under the threat of America in the south, and the Soviets in the north and northwest. America wanted to determine its security strategy against the increasing Soviet threat and use China against Soviet Russia. The visit by President Nixon’s National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger to China in 1971 was the first step in the normalization of relations between the two countries. President Nixon’s visit between February 21-28, 1972, took place in an environment where there were no diplomatic relations between the two countries.

The name “Ping-Pong Diplomacy” comes from an unexpected moment: in April 1971, an American table tennis player accidentally boarded the Chinese team’s bus at the World Table Tennis Championships in Japan. This small, accidental encounter opened the door to an invitation, and ultimately, to Nixon’s historic visit to Beijing.

In 1963, the “Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty” was signed in Moscow among America, the Soviet Union, and Britain. However, since the states actually just wanted to buy time, they continued their arms race in the nuclear field without slowing down even after this treaty. The SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), which began in Helsinki in 1969, was an important milestone in limiting nuclear weapons. In these talks, it was decided to limit only defensive missiles. With this step, the year 1969 is widely accepted as the actual beginning of the Détente period. Finally, the SALT II Treaty was signed between the US and the USSR in 1979. However, because the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in the same year, the US Congress did not ratify this treaty, and it remained solely on paper.

The front page of the Helsinki Accords

We are now at the Helsinki Final Act section. Upon entering the détente process in relations between the blocs, Eastern Bloc countries proposed convening a conference to strengthen security and cooperation in Europe. Following the SALT I Treaty, all European states, along with the US and Canada, gathered in Helsinki for the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). As a result of long negotiations, the final document encompassing fundamental peace and cooperation in international relations, namely the Helsinki Final Act, was signed on August 1, 1975. This document included vital issues such as refraining from the use of force, respect for sovereignty, peaceful settlement of disputes, cooperation among states, non-intervention in internal affairs, and respect for human rights.

With this, we have introduced the Détente period and summarized the developments centered around the US and the Soviets. In the second part, meaning our next block, we will transition to the conflicts of the Détente period. As we cover the final phases of the nuclear arms race and the end of the Cold War, we will also discuss the economic developments, socio-cultural events, and all the other dynamics of the Cold War era.

Science, Space, and Society: The Cold War's Silent Revolution

We have reached the grand finale of our Cold War series. Reading this era solely through fronts, crises, and political treaties would be incomplete. In the shadow of weapons and endless political tensions, the world underwent a massive transformation in science, technology, and daily life. We will look at that era when borders were pushed beyond the sky with the space race, when cinema and radio became the greatest powers driving the masses, and when revolutions in medicine and technology laid the foundations of today's modern life. This silent war, fought by the two superpowers in laboratories, at the Olympics, and even on the television screens inside our homes, actually shaped the world we live in today.

1. Science, Medicine, and Biology

• 1953: Francis Crick and James D. Watson solved the structure of the DNA molecule.
• 1954: The polio vaccine was developed.
• 1958: The first pacemaker was invented.

2. Space Exploration

• 1957: The USSR announced that the Sputnik I satellite was placed into orbit.
• 1957: The USSR successfully launched the Sputnik II satellite carrying the dog "Laika," the first living creature to go to space.
• 1958: The US government established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and the first US satellite was sent into space.
• 1959: The USSR sent the first unmanned satellite, Luna 2, to the Moon.

3. Military and Nuclear Technology

• 1942: The first nuclear reactor was established in the US.
• 1945: The first atomic bomb was created and used by the US.
• 1953: The first ballistic missile, "RedStone," was developed.
• 1953: The USSR detonated its first hydrogen bomb.
• 1954: "Nautilus" (SSN-571), the first nuclear-powered submarine, was launched by the US.
• 1957: The USSR tested the first intercontinental ballistic missile.

4. Computing, Communication, and Daily Technology

• 1945: The first electronic computer, named ENIAC, was released.
• 1953: The first color television broadcast began.
• 1957: Fortran, the first computer language, was developed.
• 1959: Xerox developed the first photocopier.
• 1960: The laser was invented.

5. Sports and Socio-Cultural Life

• 1951: The Mediterranean Games were held for the first time in Egypt.
• 1955-1956: The UEFA European Cup was organized for the first time, and its first winner was Spain's Real Madrid.

In our next chapter, we turn to the Détente Era, a time when the two superpowers, exhausted by decades of confrontation, cautiously reached across the divide.

Balkan Alliance, Baghdad Pact, and the Syrian Crisis: Turkey at the Heart of Cold War Diplomacy

In this new section, we will transition along that strategic line stretching from the Balkans to the Middle East. We will focus on regional developments that affected our country's security and foreign policy, such as the Balkan Alliance, the Baghdad Pact, and the Syrian Crisis. After closing this important file, we will set sail for brand-new topics.

Balkan Alliance

The first critical step in this new phase stretching from the Balkans to the Middle East is the Balkan Alliance, or the Balkan Pact, dated August 9, 1954. This alliance was formed when Yugoslavia, the only communist state outside of Soviet control, came together with Türkiye and Greece, whose entries into NATO were already guaranteed. The main goal was to prevent the USSR from expanding into the Balkans and the Mediterranean.

Member Countries of the Balkan Alliance

The rapprochement among the three countries, which began towards the end of 1951, became official with the “Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation” signed in Ankara on February 28, 1953. Under this agreement, the parties decided to consult each other on matters of common interest and to hold meetings at the foreign minister level at least once a year. As a result of these ongoing meetings, the Bled Agreement was signed on August 9, 1954, transforming the alliance fully into a military pact.

In fact, any attack directed at one of them would be considered an attack against all, and all necessary measures, including military force, would be taken. However, things did not go as smoothly as they appeared on paper. From the very first days, disagreements between Turkey and Yugoslavia emerged, and Yugoslavia's interest in the pact began to wane as it mended its relations with the Soviets after 1955. On top of that, when the Cyprus Issue erupted between Turkey and Greece, the positive atmosphere created by the pact completely faded away. Managing to exist on paper until 1960, the pact officially came to an end and became history in June 1960.

Member Countries of the Baghdad Pact

Another major development that fundamentally shook the balance in the Middle East was the Baghdad Pact, established on February 24, 1955. Seeing the decline of French and British influence in the region, a new alliance idea emerged to prevent Soviet Russia from infiltrating the Middle East. Although this idea originally came from the US, it was Türkiye that put it into action, and the pact was initially signed between Türkiye and Iraq. The pact quickly expanded with the participation of the UK, Pakistan, and Iran, but unfortunately, it failed to create the expected unifying effect in the Arab world.

On the contrary, Arab countries other than Iraq strongly opposed the pact, and the Middle East was literally split into three camps: those who joined, those who strongly opposed it (led by Egypt), and those who remained neutral. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, who did not want to lose the leadership of the Middle East to Türkiye and dreamed of uniting the Arab world under his own roof, reacted strongly to this situation. Nasser’s increasing anti-Western sentiment and his rapprochement with the Soviets directly paved the way for the Suez Crisis and ironically made the USSR's job in the region much easier. The real blow that changed the fate of the pact came from Iraq, where the monarchy was overthrown in 1958; the new administration officially announced its withdrawal from the pact on March 24, 1959.

With Iraq’s departure, the headquarters of the organization was immediately moved to Ankara, and its name was changed to CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) on August 18, 1959. In fact, CENTO’s first meeting was held in Washington in October 1959. Although initially established as a military defence alliance, the organization gradually shifted its focus to economic, cultural, and technical cooperation among its members. However, this unity reached the point of collapse when Pakistan and Iran left on March 12, 1979. The very next day, with Türkiye announcing that it respected these withdrawal decisions and that CENTO had effectively lost its function in the region, this alliance, which had marked an era, came to a de facto, if not legal, end.

Syrian scouts on the parade at the year of the crisis

Another major flashpoint in the Middle East was the Syrian Crisis that erupted in 1957. Syria, which had gained its independence from France prior to World War II, was heavily shaken by successive government coups in the 1950s. Amidst this political instability, Syria’s rapprochement with the Soviet Union, driven by Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, disturbed its neighbours. Particularly, when Syria signed an aid agreement with the USSR in 1956, it was met with fierce backlash from Türkiye, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. These countries had come to firmly believe that Syria was turning into a mere “Moscow Satellite.” 

The situation grew so tense that US President Eisenhower sent a message to Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, guaranteeing immediate American weapons aid if Türkiye, Iraq, and Jordan were forced to launch a military operation in response to a potential Syrian attack. Following this assurance, Türkiye’s decision to mass troops on the Syrian border and conduct military exercises brought relations between the two countries to the breaking point.

While the USSR escalated its counter-pressure during this critical period, the region ultimately stepped back from the brink of war. The crisis was gradually resolved thanks to the unwavering support of the US for Türkiye, Saudi Arabia’s mediation between the two nations, and Jordan’s King Hussein softening his stance toward Syria. Another crucial factor in ending the crisis was the historic agreement signed between Syria and Egypt on September 14, 1957. 

The two states decided to form a union under the name of the “United Arab Republic” starting from February 1, 1958. However, this political marriage, which made a massive impact in the Arab world, did not last long; their ties weakened over time, and the union officially ended with a government coup staged by conservative military officers in Syria in 1961.

We are finally putting aside the political maps, the never-ending border conflicts, the secret treaties, and the threats of nuclear war. As we close our Cold War file, we turn our course to perhaps the most fascinating, transformative, and impactful front of this era on our daily lives: Socio-cultural and scientific developments.

The End of Empires: Indian Independence, Vietnam, and the African Awakening

In a new section, we will look at the Indian independence movement and the Pakistan issue, which perhaps we are all somewhat familiar with. Muhammad Ali Jinnah's role in this process is highly important; he is the founder and the first Governor-General of independent Pakistan. With Britain's withdrawal from the region in 1947, the subcontinent was divided into two separate states: India and Pakistan.

Next, we move on to Vietnam. After France withdrew in 1954, Vietnam was divided into two. The US military intervention to support the South sparked a long and exhausting war. Following years of conflict, the US was forced to withdraw from the region, and Vietnam was ultimately unified.

Finally, we will briefly explain the events in Africa and conclude our article. After World War II, colonies in Africa rapidly began to gain their independence. To increase solidarity among themselves and act jointly against foreign interventions, these newly independent African states established the Organization of African Unity in 1963.

Gandhi leading his followers on the Salt March to abolish the British salt laws

Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Indian Independence Movement, initially adopted a peaceful philosophy of independence and resistance for the civil rights of the Indian community in South Africa. After returning to India from Africa, he organized poor farmers and labourers to protest against oppressive taxation policies and widespread discrimination. By assuming the leadership of the Indian National Congress, he led nationwide campaigns aimed at reducing poverty, liberating women, fostering brotherhood among different religious and ethnic groups, ending caste and untouchability discrimination, achieving economic self-sufficiency, and most importantly, attaining “Swaraj”, the liberation of India from foreign domination. Gandhi spearheaded his country's rebellion against Britain with his famous 400-kilometer “Gandhi Salt March” in 1930 against the British Salt Tax, and in 1942, he openly called on the British to leave India. Ultimately, having emerged quite exhausted from World War II, Britain could no longer resist the developments in the region and was forced to recognize India’s independence on August 14, 1947.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Mahatma Gandhi

The name “Pakistan” was actually first proposed in 1940 by Muslim students studying in England, and until 1940, the Muslim population of the subcontinent shared the same independence struggle as India. The turning point came at the Lahore Congress, where Jinnah led the decision to establish a separate Muslim state. However, the turning point occurred on March 23, 1940, at the Muslim League Congress held in Lahore under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. At this congress, the decision was made to partition India between Muslims and non-Muslims and to establish a completely separate State of Pakistan. The chief architect of this process and the leader of the Muslim Nationalist Movement, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, became the founder and the first governor-general (head of state) of Pakistan when the country gained its independence on August 14, 1947. Even after independence, Jinnah fought tirelessly for Pakistan's rights against India, particularly during the Kashmir Dispute, until he passed away on September 11, 1948.

American Huey helicopters inserting South Vietnamese ARVN troops, 1970

Let’s move on to Vietnam, the unhealing wound of Asia. In Vietnam, which became a French colony in the 19th century, France’s severe economic exploitation and political oppression naturally sparked a strong national resistance movement. The communists, who formed the strongest wing of this resistance, gained momentum in the 1930s and established the Vietnam Independence League, known as the Viet Minh, in 1941. When Japan, which had occupied the country during World War II, surrendered in 1945, Viet Minh forces seized power in Hanoi, and their leader Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam’s independence. However, France, unwilling to let go of its colony, managed to suppress this national movement in the south but attempted to re-establish its colonial regime in the north. This sparked the bloody Indochina Wars that lasted from 1946 to 1954. The war ultimately ended when France suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Finally, under the decisions of the Geneva Accords signed on July 21, 1954, the country was temporarily divided into two separate states along the 17th Parallel: the communist-controlled Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north and the Republic of Vietnam in the south.

Troops of the King's African Rifles on watch for Mau Mau rebels

Finally, we turn our attention to Africa. The devastating impacts of World War II shook colonial powers like Germany, Belgium, Portugal, and the Netherlands, alongside Britain and France. Meanwhile, rising economic strength and the strengthening of nationalism in African states began to bring an end to colonialism on the continent. The first bold step on this path was taken by Ghana, which gained its independence from Britain in 1957, and was quickly followed by Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Uganda, and Tanganyika.

In Kenya, things were a bit harsher; the rebellion launched by the “Mau Mau” secret society against Britain in 1952 culminated in independence in 1963. Moving on to the French front, the largest and bloodiest independence struggle occurred in Algeria. France had used Algeria as a resistance base during World War II in 1942, but when the war ended, they responded to the Algerians’ demands for independence or equal rights in return for their sacrifices with severe backlash and massacres. Even though France declared it “French territory” rather than a colony in 1948 to the outside world, they continued to rule it as a colony and denied the Algerian people equal rights.

Consequently, a massive armed struggle began in 1954 as the public organized under the leadership of the National Liberation Front and the Algerian National Movement. Although France recognized the independence of Morocco and Tunisia in 1956 just to hold onto Algeria, these two newly freed countries provided support to the Algerian resistance. Ultimately, the struggle succeeded, and independence was achieved with the signing of the Evian Accords in 1962, establishing the Democratic People's Republic of Algeria. While all this was happening in the north, foreign rule in Libya, which had been under Italian control since 1911, ended in 1951 with the help of the Allied powers. The Kingdom of Libya was formed, and it quickly joined the Arab League in 1953 and the UN in 1955.

OAU during its foundation

Organization of African Unity

The countries that gained their independence in Africa chose not to take part in any bloc in the polarized world of the Cold War. Instead, to collectively ensure economic development, they established the Organization of African Unity (OAU) on May 25, 1963, with its headquarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The primary goals of this organization, which had 32 founding members, were to support the independence of African countries, to ensure unity and solidarity by preventing conflicts on the continent, and to improve international relations. Thus, the Africa file was closed with a sense of continental awakening and solidarity.

Thus, we have completed the great awakening, division, and independence processes in Asia and Africa under the shadow of the Cold War. As we conclude these historical events that rewrote the destinies of continents here, we are already starting our preparations for the next chapter. In our next article, we will turn our course back to our immediate geography and discuss those critical developments that occurred right around our borders and directly affected our history: the Balkan Alliance, the Syrian Crisis, and the Saadabad Pact. 

Magazine: the Past & Cultural Heritage

 

The Korean War, the Fall of Indochina, and the Birth of SEATO: Cold War in the Far East

While tensions between the Eastern and Western blocs were shaping Europe, the ripple effects of the Cold War were reaching the Far East as well. Two things deeply concerned both the Soviet Union and China, who were highly influential in the region: the presence of the United States in South Korea, and the continued presence of France in Southeast Asia, in Indochina with active American support. For these reasons, the two defining conflicts in the Far East between 1950 and 1954 were the Korean War and the Indochina War.

Korean War (1950-1953)

Our story actually begins with a dangerous signature placed during the final days of World War II, at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945. When Soviet Russia decided to enter the war in the Far East, to facilitate military operations, the territory of Korea was divided in two right along the 38th parallel, as if drawn with a ruler on a map. The north of this invisible line was recognized as the Soviet military operations zone, while the south was designated for the US.

However, when the war ended, that temporary border turned into a permanent wall. Neither US-Soviet negotiations nor the diplomatic efforts of the United Nations were sufficient to reunite these two regions. As the polarization became definitive, the US organized elections in its controlled south on May 10, 1948, leading to the establishment of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) under the presidency of Syngman Rhee. In response, the Soviets wasted no time in holding elections tailored to their own system in North Korea, establishing the Democratic People's Republic of Korea on September 9, 1948.

The real explosion occurred when the giant of Asia, China, fell under communist rule in 1949. Seizing this massive shift in power, and backed by the Soviets and China, North Korea unexpectedly declared war and crossed the border into South Korea on June 25, 1950, with the aim of completely expelling the US from Asia.

As events reached this breaking point, the UN Security Council convened urgently and took a historic decision: there would be a military intervention in South Korea. An international UN Force, comprising troops from various nations but primarily shouldered and commanded by the US (under General Douglas MacArthur), was formed and deployed to Korea.

Where Turkey Earned Its NATO Ticket: The Epic of Korea

This is exactly where the significance of this war begins for our history. To prove its loyalty to the Western Bloc and secure entry under the NATO umbrella against the Soviet threat, Turkey dispatched a fully equipped military brigade to Korea to serve under this UN Force. This decision marks the very first time in the history of the Turkish Republic that troops were sent abroad, let alone to the other side of the world. The legendary heroism displayed by the Turkish brigade in the Korean mountains resonated tremendously throughout the Western world, throwing the doors of NATO wide open in 1952 for Turkey, whose application had previously been rejected.

This bloody war, which began in 1950 and caused the deaths of millions of civilians and soldiers, ended after three years with neither side able to achieve decisive superiority over the other. With the Panmunjom Armistice signed in July 1953, the guns fell silent, and the border was re-established exactly where the war had started: the 38th parallel. In other words, all that blood failed to shift the borders even a millimeter.

General Walton Walker, Commander of the United Nations Forces, presenting the ‘Silver Star’ medal to Brigadier General Tahsin Yazıcı, Commander of the Turkish Brigade

The Collapse of Colonialism and the Indochina War (1954)

While the waters were calming in Korea, a brand-new storm was brewing in another corner of Asia: Indochina. Emerging from the devastation of World War II, France stubbornly attempted to maintain its colonial rule in this region, which encompassed Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos hoping to return to its former days of glory. However, Asia had awakened; France’s colonial persistence triggered total wars of independence among the regional populations.

France’s inability to crush this resistance and its subsequent entrapment in a quagmire elevated the issue from a local rebellion to a massive Cold War crisis between the Eastern and Western blocs by 1954. As events spiralled out of control, heavyweights such as the US, France, Britain, the USSR, and the People's Republic of China were forced to convene a historic peace conference in Geneva in 1954.

The outcomes of the Geneva Conference were an absolute earthquake in the history of colonialism: suffering a severe defeat, France was forced to withdraw completely from Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, and these nations gained their independence. However, the most critical clause of the agreement, and the one that would most significantly impact the future, concerned Vietnam: Just like in Korea, Vietnam was partitioned into two, a (Communist) North and a (pro-Western) South, with the 17th Parallel designated as the border. This division would very soon pave the way to one of the greatest traumas in American history: the Hell of Vietnam.

Indochine physique, 1930

The Establishment of SEATO (Manila Pact) (September 8, 1954)

The crisis in Vietnam, which escalated after the Korean War, pushed the US to reinforce its defence measures in Asia with much firmer and more forceful steps. This war laid bare the danger facing Southeast Asia; the strategic importance of the region had become undeniable. Why was it so significant? If this region were to fall under communist control, Soviet Russia and China could gain dominance over global trade chokepoints like Singapore and the Strait of Malacca, which would create a nightmare scenario for the defence of the Pacific Ocean.

The US Two-Step Strategy

To protect this massive region, the US activated a two-phase plan:

The first step: Directly increasing military and economic aid to countries that had recently gained full independence, such as Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam.

The second step: Establishing a collective defence system to shield the region.

SEATO (Manila Pact) and the Ring of Alliances

The tangible result of the second step was the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization), or the Manila Pact, signed on September 8, 1954. This collective defence organization was founded with the participation of global powers like the US, UK, and France, alongside Far Eastern nations: New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan. In doing so, the US created a massive "ring of alliances" surrounding Soviet Russia and its ally, China.

The US did not limit its containment strategy to this alone. To balance the scales in Asia against Communist China, it signed an alliance treaty with the Nationalist Chinese (Formosa/Taiwan) Government on December 2, 1955. Like the SEATO treaty, this alliance had no expiration date; America was determined to transform its borders in Asia into permanent military strongholds.

The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Lebanon Crisis: America's New Role in the Middle East

The Suez Crisis had drastically shifted the pieces on the Middle Eastern chessboard. Following this crisis, the US realized that the image of traditional Western colonial powers like Britain and France in the Arab world was completely shattered, and Soviet Russia (USSR) was rapidly filling this void, increasing its prestige.

America’s Middle East Shield: The Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)

To halt this trend, US President Eisenhower sent a historic message to the US Congress on January 5, 1957. In this message, Eisenhower stated that after the Suez Crisis, the USSR was close to dominating the Suez Canal and the Middle Eastern oil resources, the lifeblood of the West, thereby bringing the region under political control and dealing a fatal blow to the Western Bloc.

With this move, which would go down in history as the Eisenhower Doctrine, the President requested authorization to provide direct economic and military aid to Middle Eastern countries, to use US armed forces directly if these countries faced an attack from communist nations, and to spend $200 million annually for this purpose.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

How did it differ from the Truman Doctrine? Although the US first showed its interest in the Middle Eastern borders with the Truman Doctrine, that was a narrowly framed plan limited only to Türkiye and Greece, primarily envisioning “military aid.” In contrast, the Eisenhower Doctrine encompassed the entire Middle Eastern region and, most importantly, guaranteed that these countries would be defended against communism personally by the US, under the condition of “the actual use of American troops when necessary.” 

Through this doctrine, the US completely filled the power vacuum left by Britain and France (following the Suez fiasco) and stepped up against the USSR as the new protector of the Middle East. However, the doctrine split the Arab world in two: while Lebanon, Pakistan, Iraq, Türkiye, Greece, Afghanistan, Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco supported the plan; Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, swept by nationalist winds, reacted strongly against it.

The Doctrine’s First Test: The Lebanon Crisis (1958) The first major crisis where the Eisenhower Doctrine was put to the test erupted shortly after. During the 1957 general elections in Lebanon, pro-Western President Camille Chamoun rigged the elections to install a parliament that would extend his term for another 4 years, and on top of that, he accepted the Eisenhower Doctrine. This created a massive political crisis in the country. With the country on the brink of civil war, President Chamoun immediately appealed to the US, Britain, and France, claiming that everything happening was the result of “foreign intervention” (specifically by neighbouring Syria, and indirectly the USSR/Egypt alliance), and requested urgent military aid for Lebanon. The US, initially reluctant to engage in direct military intervention, changed its mind when the balance in the region suddenly turned upside down. The bloody coup in Iraq that toppled the pro-Western monarchy and heavily damaged the Baghdad Pact, the Western shield in the Middle East, threw the US into a panic. Consequently, the US invoked the Eisenhower Doctrine and landed exactly 15,000 American troops in Lebanon. Under the show of force by the American navy and troops, coupled with diplomatic pressure, President Chamoun agreed to drop his bid to extend his term. The crisis subsided when the Chief of Staff, Fuad Chehab, who was respected by all factions, was elected as the new president by the Lebanese parliament. U.S. Marine sits in a foxhole and points a machine gun towards Beirut, Lebanon With this, we have concluded that first decade which drew the borders of the Middle East in blood: the establishment of Israel, the devastating toll of the Arab-Israeli wars, the imperialist debacle at Suez, and the Eisenhower Doctrine, which marked direct US military intervention in the region. We saw step-by-step how the unending fire between Israel and Palestine was first stoked, and how Iran, attempting to claim its own oil, was silenced by a coup. Our new series: Developments in the Far East.