1984 by George Orwell

 The Power of Propaganda: Examining George Orwell's 1984

 

I was a bit biased against dystopian works at first... However, eventually, I realized that these works not only depict a dark future but also have the power to critique our current world. Authors aim to make people think and encourage change by highlighting the problems and shortcomings of society. Perhaps examining these works without bias can provide a deeper understanding and awareness. Recently in school, we've been studying 1984 by George Orwell, a dystopian work that prompts deep reflections on humanity.

George Orwell's 1984, published in 1949, is set in a totalitarian society ruled by the Party and its leader, Big Brother. To comprehend the novel, we can glance at the life of George Orwell. The writing of 1984 took place in 1948 when Europe was in a very weak and uncertain state after World War II. The end of the war in Britain was marked by a hard, dull, and unexciting life. The aftermath of war often brings a sense of pride and relief, particularly when freedom is maintained or restored. People tend to focus on their own nation's victories and freedoms, feeling fortunate compared to others who may be suffering under oppressive regimes. Indeed, Orwell's "1984" masterfully illustrated the universal threat posed by oppressive regimes, regardless of geographical location. While the defeat of the Nazis marked a victory for freedom in Europe, the specter of authoritarianism persisted in other parts of the world, such as Russia and China. Orwell's warning resonates with the understanding that the seeds of tyranny can take root anywhere, including in democratic societies like Britain. Through the dystopian lens of "1984," Orwell urged readers to remain vigilant against the encroachment of state power and to defend individual liberties wherever they may be threatened. In the aftermath of the 'war against terror', numerous governments have indeed broadened their surveillance powers, justifying such measures in the name of security. The omnipresence of surveillance cameras and the digitalization of personal data have transformed the landscape of privacy. Moreover, globalization, spurred by corporate interests, has contributed to the erosion of national distinctions, fostering a convergence of desires and aspirations among people worldwide. These trends underscore the ongoing relevance of Orwell's insights and serve as a sobering reminder of the enduring struggle to safeguard individual liberties in an increasingly interconnected world. Orwell's intention wasn't to predict a specific future but to offer a cautionary tale about the potential dangers of unchecked power, regardless of the era. "1984" serves as a timeless reminder of the perils of authoritarianism and the importance of vigilance in safeguarding individual freedoms. By depicting a dystopian society characterized by pervasive surveillance, government manipulation, and the suppression of dissent, Orwell aimed to provoke readers to contemplate the implications of concentrated power and the erosion of personal liberty. In essence, "1984" serves as a stark warning about the ever-present threat posed by those who seek to wield power without accountability.

Background and Themes

• Social Ideals

Orwell's experiences and political beliefs profoundly influenced "1984." As a socialist, he was deeply committed to the principles of equality and fairness, and he viewed the concentration of power in the hands of the state with great skepticism. Coming from a time when Europe was reeling from the aftermath of World War II and witnessing the rise of totalitarian regimes, Orwell was acutely aware of the dangers posed by unchecked government authority

In "1984," Orwell's socialist ideals are evident in his critique of authoritarianism and his advocacy for individual rights. The novel portrays a dystopian society where the government exerts total control over every aspect of citizens' lives, suppressing dissent and manipulating reality to maintain its grip on power. Through his portrayal of this oppressive regime, Orwell underscores the importance of safeguarding individual liberties and resisting the encroachment of authoritarian rule.

•  Power

Orwell examines the mechanisms through which a government can consolidate power and suppress individual freedom in "1984." Goldstein's book, as depicted in Chapter 8, provides crucial insights into the inherent flaws of attempts to achieve absolute equality in society. Goldstein's analysis acknowledges the inevitability of social hierarchy and the tendency for humans to exert power over others. The manipulation of reality by the state through the distortion of emotions and perceptions. 

In Oceania, the ruling Party employs various tactics to control the minds and emotions of its citizens, effectively erasing natural human feelings such as familial and romantic love. Instead, the Party demands unwavering loyalty and adoration towards Big Brother, while instilling hatred towards perceived enemies like Goldstein and the Eurasian soldiers.

•    Manipulating Language

Language manipulation is a basis of the government's power in "1984." Big Brother and the Party recognize the profound influence of language on shaping perceptions and controlling the thoughts of the populace. By manipulating language, they can mold reality according to their own agenda and suppress dissent. One of the primary tools of linguistic manipulation in Oceania is Newspeak, a language engineered to limit freedom of thought and expression. Newspeak systematically eliminates words that convey rebellious or subversive ideas, thereby restricting the range of thought permissible among citizens. By controlling language, the Party seeks to control the very concepts that individuals are capable of understanding and articulating, ensuring conformity to Party ideology. 

Moreover, the Party employs propaganda and slogans to implant new ideas and shape public opinion. Phrases like "War is Peace," "Freedom is Slavery," and "Ignorance is Strength" exemplify the Party's ability to invert truth and manipulate language to serve its own interests. These slogans not only reinforce Party doctrine but also undermine rational thought and critical inquiry, fostering a climate of unquestioning obedience among the populace. 

Through its manipulation of language, Big Brother asserts its dominance over reality itself, demonstrating the power of linguistic control in maintaining totalitarian rule. "1984" serves as a stark warning about the dangers of linguistic manipulation and the importance of preserving language as a tool for free expression and independent thought.

•  Re-writing History

Re-writing history is a crucial aspect of the Party's control mechanism in "1984." Orwell vividly illustrates how the manipulation of historical records serves to maintain the Party's authority and perpetuate its ideology. In Oceania, the Ministry of Truth is responsible for fabricating and altering historical documents to align with the Party's current narrative. Winston, along with his colleagues, engages in the task of re-writing history, erasing inconvenient truths, and falsifying events to ensure that the Party's version of reality remains unchallenged. 

By controlling the past, the Party seeks to control the present and shape the future according to its own interests. The importance of historical documentation cannot be overstated in "1984." Orwell underscores how the manipulation of historical records allows the Party to rewrite the narrative of the past, thereby shaping the collective memory of society. By erasing dissent, suppressing alternative perspectives, and glorifying Party achievements, the Party seeks to maintain its grip on power and perpetuate its rule through a distortion of historical truth.

•   Repression

Repression through brute force is a final, yet critical, tactic employed by the Party to maintain its grip on power in "1984." When all other methods of control falter, the Party resorts to violence and intimidation to suppress dissent and ensure compliance. The concept of "vaporization" exemplifies this brutal repression. Individuals deemed enemies of the Party are summarily executed or "vaporized," effectively erased from existence. This extreme measure serves as a chilling deterrent to potential dissenters, instilling fear and obedience among the populace. Additionally, those who are not killed outright may be subjected to torture and imprisonment, further reinforcing the Party's dominance through coercion and violence. 

Through the pervasive atmosphere of fear and surveillance, the Party establishes a climate of terror in which even the mere thought of rebellion is swiftly quashed. The threat of reprisal hangs over every citizen, compelling them to conform to Party orthodoxy and suppress any subversive inclinations. In "1984," Orwell depicts repression as the ultimate tool of totalitarian control, demonstrating how the Party wields violence and intimidation to crush dissent and maintain its power. By portraying the extreme consequences of opposition, Orwell underscores the high stakes of resistance in a dystopian society where individual freedom is ruthlessly suppressed.

•  Liberty

Orwell's dystopian novel vividly depicts the consequences of a government that prioritizes control and authority at the expense of individual freedom. In the totalitarian society of Oceania, the Party exerts near-total control over every aspect of citizens' lives, eradicating personal liberties in the name of maintaining social order. Through surveillance, censorship, and propaganda, the Party suppresses dissent and enforces conformity, creating a society devoid of autonomy and free expression. Orwell warns of the dangers inherent in granting unchecked power to the government in the pursuit of social order. By relinquishing personal liberties in favor of security and stability, individuals risk surrendering their autonomy and becoming subservient to oppressive rule. "1984" serves as a stark reminder of the importance of safeguarding individual freedom and resisting the encroachment of authoritarianism in the name of societal order. Through its exploration of the tensions between liberty and control, "1984" prompts readers to reflect on the value of personal autonomy and the dangers of sacrificing individual freedoms for the illusion of security. Orwell's dystopian vision serves as a powerful reminder of the enduring struggle to preserve liberty in the face of tyranny.

 

From my perspective, Orwell’s novel has obvious reference to a historical entity, and (Stalinist Russia) we also have the author’s world that Nazi Germany was not entirely removed from his mind. The chapters from Goldstein’s book are a summary or a parody of Trotsky political sociology. Orwell's incorporation of Trotskyist ideas into Goldstein's writings serves to underscore the novel's exploration of power dynamics, authoritarianism, and the manipulation of truth in oppressive societies.

We can’t ignore ministries in the novel, four ministries have been established in Oceania:

• Ministry of Truth

Aim: To control information and manipulate public opinion.

Responsibilities: Rewriting historical records, altering news articles, and disseminating propaganda to ensure conformity to Party ideology.

Slogan: "War is Peace, Freedom is Slavery, Ignorance is Strength."

•  Ministry of Peace

Aim: To maintain the Party's grip on power through perpetual warfare and the threat of external enemies.

Responsibilities: Organizing and perpetuating war efforts, fostering a climate of fear and nationalism, and justifying the need for authoritarian rule.

•  Ministry of Love

Aim: To maintain internal order and eliminate dissent through fear and surveillance.

Responsibilities: Enforcing loyalty to Big Brother, conducting brutal interrogations and torture of suspected dissidents, and maintaining the Thought Police.

      I.            Ministry of Plenty

Aim: To oversee economic affairs and control the allocation of resources.

Responsibilities: Manipulating economic data, rationing goods, and perpetuating scarcity to maintain social control and dependence on the Party.

The colors in the novel are always pole, black, and gray. Everyone wears blue. Big Brother looks black and white. Only when you go to Proles, point and color are mentioned through the women which means make-up because colorfulness means diversity and the government does not like diversity. The predominant colors of pole, black, and grey symbolize the monotony and drabness of life under totalitarian rule. These muted tones reflect the absence of vibrancy and individual expression, reinforcing the theme of conformity and control.

• The ubiquitous blue worn by Party members represents loyalty to the Party and adherence to its ideology. It serves as a uniform symbol of allegiance and conformity, further emphasizing the homogeneity of society under Party rule.
• Big Brother's black-and-white appearance mirrors the stark dichotomy of the Party's propaganda: the perceived clarity of truth and falsehood, good and evil, as defined by the Party. By presenting Big Brother in black and white, Orwell underscores the binary nature of Party ideology and the rigid dichotomies it imposes on society.
• The introduction of color and diversity in the Proles' world, particularly through the women's makeup, serves as a stark contrast to the uniformity of Party life. It symbolizes the vitality and humanity that the Party seeks to suppress, highlighting the inherent diversity and individuality of humanity that the Party aims to eradicate.

With the advancement of technology today, mechanisms of surveillance and control, such as monitoring and eavesdropping on individuals through their mobile phones, can be implemented in a more sophisticated manner. The collection and monitoring of personal data through mobile phones, social media platforms, and other digital communication tools can indeed have a similar effect to the surveillance and control mechanisms depicted in "1984." Furthermore, the data collected about individuals' behaviors and preferences through platforms like social media can be utilized in areas such as advertising and marketing, potentially influencing people's habits and thoughts. This can create an effect akin to the hypnotization of society. Trends like the abbreviation of words in text messaging can also influence thought and communication styles. The expression of emotions and depth in communication may diminish over time. This could resemble a form of Newspeak depicted in "1984," where language is restricted in its usage and freedom of expression is limited. These developments underscore the importance of being cautious about the protection of our personal data and freedoms as individuals. It also reminds us of the importance of preserving depth in communication and emotional connection.

Fahrenheit 451 and 1984

 Fire and Surveillance: Fahrenheit 451 and 1984 

Ray Brundy’s Fahrenheit 451 and George Orwell's 1984 are two classic dystopian novels that have captivated readers for decades. Both books offer a chilling glimpse into a future where freedom of thought and expression are severely restricted, and where government control is absolute. While they share some similarities in their themes and settings, there are also significant differences that set them apart. In this blog post, we will compare and contrast these two influential works of literature.

Published in 1953, Fahrenheit 451 is a novel by Ray Bradbury that takes place in a future society where books are banned and "firemen" are tasked with burning any that are found. The protagonist, Guy Montag, is one of these firemen, but he begins to question his status after meeting a young woman who challenges his beliefs. The novel explores the dangers of censorship and the power of knowledge, as well as the importance of critical thinking and individuality. On the other hand, George Orwell's 1984, published in 1949, is set in a totalitarian society ruled by the Party and its leader, Big Brother. The protagonist, Winston Smith, works for the Party's Ministry of Truth, where he alters historical records to fit the Party's narrative. As he becomes disillusioned with the Party and begins to rebel in small ways, he is drawn into a dangerous game of deception and betrayal. The novel delves into themes of surveillance, propaganda, and the manipulation of truth, as well as the loss of personal freedom and privacy.

One of the most striking similarities between the two novels is their depiction of oppressive governments that seek to control every aspect of their citizens' lives. In both societies, individuality is suppressed, free thought is discouraged, and any form of dissent is swiftly punished. The protagonists in both books find themselves isolated and alienated as they struggle to navigate a world where independent thinking is seen as a threat to the established order. Additionally, both novels highlight the importance of knowledge and the preservation of truth. In Fahrenheit 451, books are banned because they are seen as subversive and potentially disruptive to societal harmony. Similarly, in 1984, the Party goes to great lengths to manipulate historical records and eliminate any evidence that contradicts its version of reality. Both books serve as cautionary tales about the dangers of censorship and the suppression of information.

Character Comparison

• Guy Montag: Initially, Montag is a loyal fireman who unquestioningly carries out his duties of burning books. However, his encounters with Clarisse and witnessing the burning of an old woman who chooses to die with her books spark a gradual awakening to the emptiness of his society. Montag becomes increasingly disillusioned with the superficiality and conformity around him, eventually rebelling against the oppressive regime.

• Winston Smith: Winston is a member of the Outer Party in the totalitarian state of Oceania. Initially, he outwardly conforms to the Party's dictates but harbors rebellious thoughts against the regime. His affair with Julia and encounters with O'Brien lead him to join the Brotherhood, an underground resistance movement. However, he ultimately succumbs to the Party's indoctrination and betrays Julia, symbolizing the triumph of totalitarianism over individuality.

• Clarisse (Fahrenheit 451): Clarisse is a free-spirited teenager who challenges Montag's worldview and prompts him to question society's values. She represents innocence, curiosity, and the human desire for genuine connection.

• Julia (1984): Julia is Winston's lover and fellow rebel against the Party. Unlike Winston, Julia is pragmatic and focused on personal pleasure rather than political ideology. She symbolizes the resilience of human desires and the possibility of finding love in a dystopian world.

Censorship and Control

Both novels explore the theme of censorship and government control over information and ideas. In "Fahrenheit 451," the government bans books to maintain control over the population's thoughts and suppress dissent. In "1984," the Party manipulates language and history to control public perception and eliminate dissenting voices.

Rebellion and Individuality

• Both Montag and Winston rebel against oppressive regimes that seek to suppress individuality and independent thought. They symbolize the human desire for freedom and autonomy in the face of authoritarianism.

Technology and Surveillance

• Technology plays a significant role in both novels, albeit in different ways. In "Fahrenheit 451," technology is used to facilitate censorship and control, such as the Mechanical Hound used to track down dissenters. In "1984," technology is employed for surveillance and monitoring of citizens, with telescreens and hidden microphones ubiquitous in everyday life.

The Power of Ideas

• Both novels emphasize the transformative power of ideas and the resilience of human creativity. Despite efforts to suppress knowledge and free thought, individuals like Montag and Winston are ultimately inspired by ideas of rebellion, truth, and love to challenge oppressive systems.

Symbols and Allegories

• Motifs like fire in "Fahrenheit 451" and Big Brother in "1984" serve as powerful symbols of authority and control. Fire symbolizes destruction and rebirth, while Big Brother represents the omnipresent surveillance state.

By comparing the characters and exploring common themes and motifs, we can gain a deeper understanding of how "Fahrenheit 451" and "1984" address similar concerns about government control, censorship, and the suppression of individuality, while also highlighting the distinct narrative approaches and symbolic elements employed by each author.

 

Despite these similarities, there are also significant differences between the two novels. One notable distinction is their approach to technology. In Fahrenheit 451, technology is portrayed as a tool of oppression, with large wall-sized televisions and Sea-Shell radios used to inundate people with mindless entertainment and propaganda. In contrast, 1984 presents a more advanced surveillance state, with telescreens in every home monitoring citizens' every move and thought. Another difference lies in the portrayal of hope and resistance. While both novels depict bleak and oppressive societies, Fahrenheit 451 offers a more optimistic outlook, suggesting that change is possible through individual acts of defiance and the preservation of knowledge. In contrast, 1984 presents a much bleaker view of the future, with its ending leaving little room for hope or redemption.

 

To sum up, Fahrenheit 451 and 1984 are two powerful works of dystopian fiction that continue to resonate with readers today. While they share common themes of government oppression and the suppression of knowledge, they also differ in their portrayal of technology and their outlook on the possibility of change. Both novels serve as cautionary tales about the dangers of totalitarianism and the importance of preserving individual freedom and truth. Whether read separately or together, these books offer valuable insights into the potential consequences of unchecked government power and the enduring resilience of the human spirit.

Shahmaran: Beauty, Betrayal, and the Power of Myth

  Shahmaran: Beauty, Betrayal, and the Power of Myth

In the folklore of the Middle East and Anatolia, there exists a mythical creature known as Shahmaran. She is often depicted as a beautiful woman with the lower body of a serpent, and her story has been passed down through generations. Shahmaran with the body of a woman and the tail of a serpent, Shahmaran embodies a mystical fusion of beauty, wisdom, and intrigue. Her legend, woven through generations of storytelling, carries profound lessons and enduring cultural significance. Shrouded in mystery, Shahmaran resides in the depths of the earth, ruling over all snakes as their queen. Her name itself holds power, derived from the Persian words "Shah" meaning king or queen, and "Maran" referring to snakes. Yet, it is not just her regal presence that commands attention, but the tales woven around her that captivate the imagination. As I embark on a journey to unravel the secrets of Shahmaran, I explore a world where folklore meets morality, where beauty is entwined with wisdom, and where betrayal carries profound consequences.

 Drawing Shahmaran

The legend takes a fateful turn when a young man from a nearby village, driven by curiosity and a thirst for knowledge, ventures into the mountains in search of Shahmaran. Drawn by tales of her beauty and wisdom, he braves the treacherous paths until he stumbles upon her hidden abode, a cave adorned with shimmering gems and guarded by the slithering forms of her serpentine court. In the presence of Shahmaran, the young man finds himself entranced by her radiance and captivated by her words. He listens as she imparts to him the ancient truths of the world, sharing with him the wisdom that has been her solitary domain for eons untold. But in return for her teachings, Shahmaran exacts a solemn vow from the young man—a promise to keep her existence a secret, lest dire consequences befall him and his village.

Shahmaran

Bound by his oath, the young man returns to his village, his mind ablaze with the knowledge he has gained. In the days that follow, he becomes a figure of renown, his newfound wisdom sought after by all who cross his path. Yet, with each passing moment, the burden of his secret grows heavier, and the temptation to reveal Shahmaran's existence gnaws at his conscience. In a moment of weakness, fueled by pride and ambition, the young man succumbs to temptation and betrays Shahmaran's trust. He divulges her whereabouts to the villagers, eager to claim the glory that he believes awaits him as the keeper of such a wondrous secret. But Shahmaran's wrath is swift and unforgiving. Enraged by the betrayal of her trust, she vanishes from the cave, leaving behind naught but echoes of her sorrow and the lingering scent of serpents. Some say she retreated deeper into the earth, while others claim she ascended to the heavens, forever beyond the reach of mortals. And so ends the legend of Shahmaran, a tale of beauty and wisdom, of trust and betrayal. Though her physical presence may have faded into the mists of time, her legend lives on, a reminder of the consequences that befall those who dare to betray the trust of the wise and the divine.

Basilica Cistern/Medusa 

Beyond the realms of folklore and myth, the legend of Shahmaran continues to exert its influence on contemporary culture, leaving an indelible mark on literature, art, music, and film. Despite originating from ancient Anatolia traditions, Shahmaran's timeless allure has transcended geographical boundaries, captivating the imaginations of creators and audiences around the world. In conclusion, Shahmaran's presence in popular culture speaks to the enduring power of myth and folklore to captivate the human imagination. Across diverse mediums and artistic disciplines, her legend continues to resonate with audiences, inviting us to explore the timeless themes and universal truths embedded within her story. As Shahmaran's legacy endures, so too does our fascination with this captivating figure from the depths of Anatolian folklore.

 

 

 

 

Political Struggle and Confrontations Following the Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople

Political Struggle and Confrontations

Following the Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople

 

After the Islamic conquest of Constantinople, the star of a brilliant leader, Muhammad II el Fatih, also known as Mehmet II, had been rising. Muhammad II sent his delegates, carrying precious gifts and captive slaves, informing Mamluk Sultan Inal of this victory. The Sultan rejoiced and responded with a congratulatory letter. Egyptian cities were decorated, the Sultani cannons fired at Saladin’s citadel, and festivities took place. Under the surface, powerful currents were swirling unseen, and this conquest was followed up by much instability.

Outline of the Ottoman Empire, from the Theatro d'el Orbe de la Tierra de Abraham Ortelius, Antwerp, 1602, updated from the 1570 edition

• Europe’s Response to the Islamic Conquest of Constantinople

The reaction of Western Europe to the Ottoman conquest was furious and bitter. It was not surprising that the trade routes from Western Asia to Western Europe through the Black Sea, Anatolia, and the straits collapsed. This conquest challenged Venice's economic position within the region and threatened the existence of the Venetian colonies of Crete and Negroponte. The papacy restricted Christian merchants from dealing with Muslims. The Levant and Egypt had been important markets where Venetian trade had been tax-exempt. Trade with the Mamluks was Venice’s main engine. The effects were dramatic, and European merchants were no longer able to flock to the Egyptian and Levantine coasts and markets.

Mamluks and Italians. Renaissance painting by Giovanni Mansueti “Scenes from the Life of St Mark”

But it did not take long for the Italian attitude to be entirely reshaped. Venice’s economic ties with the Mamluks took precedence over concern with the Ottoman threat. When two ministers of sea affairs demanded the postponement of the scheduled voyage of large Venetian round-ships to Syria, the senate allowed the round-ships to depart as planned. In December 1462, five Venetian ministers proposed in the Senate a motion that was to initiate a long-lasting Venetian embargo against the Ottoman Empire. Business with the Mamluks was resumed and with the strong demand came a rising level of trade. Venice and the Italian states worked on strengthening their relations with the Mamluks. In 1485, negotiations for closer relations between Venice and Cairo were held. In 1496, a treaty was concluded between Florence and the Circassian-Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay. Muslim traders and merchants were highly active in the Mediterranean. However, Egypt and Italy faced another blow. In 1487, the world changed after the Portuguese reached the coasts of the Indian Ocean following their discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. Egypt and Italy lost their important commercial positions. At the same time, Ottoman ambitions and horizons began to expand.

•  Situation in the Mamluk Sultanate

By the late 15th century, the Mamluk Sultanate suffered from maladministration by weak sultans and corrupt emirs. There were troubles caused by the public along with economic decline, frequent plagues, and environmental disasters such as drought, which devastated agriculture. The Egypt-born Baalbaki historian Al Maqrizi captured the realities of life for most Egyptians: People were going hungry, and food, though available, was not being distributed. This was due to inflated prices, bribery, high taxes, and an unstable currency. Regarding economic functions, the Mamluk government suffered from monopoly, corruption, and tyranny of officials, as well as neglect of agricultural lands. The Iqta’ system controlled most of the agricultural land in Egypt and the Levant. The leasing and sale of land of Bayt al Maal became common. The Mamluk state was on the verge of financial collapse. Sultans Barquq and Qaitbay introduced fiscal reforms, but these caused a financial crisis due to the depletion of the treasury, especially the revenues from Kharaj lands. To make matters worse, the public was unhappy about the freedom and privileges given to the Europeans. In the decades after, Mamluk slave soldiers dominated the people, so they used to buy from merchants in the markets without paying them. Theft and prostitution became widespread.

Emblem of Sultan Qaitbay on the facade of the caravanserai and public fountain of Sultan Qaitbay in Cairo. Emblem reads: Abul Nasr Qaitbay, Glory to our Lord, the Sultan, Al Malik Al Ashraf, May his victory be glorified. Photographs taken by Simon Rousselot in November 2019.

•    Mamluk-Ottoman Rivalry

The golden days of the Mamluks were now pages of the past. This was no longer the powerful sultanate of Baybars and Qalawun. The Mamluk Empire was no longer achieving significant military victories. The continuous Ottoman success and acquiring more lands increased their popularity. This worried the Mamluk Sultans. The Arabs of Granada, facing the Catholic threat, turned their requests to the Ottomans with a delegation arriving at the court of Muhammad II after the Mamluks showed no significant response to their pleas. The Ottomans, who started taking up global Muslim causes, turned their gaze to the Levant and the Mamluk borders to secure their trade routes. In September 1465, Doge Christophoro Moro of Venice, who was at war with Ottoman Sultan Muhammad II, sent a letter to King Edward IV of England, mentioning that Egyptian merchants on his vessels were mistreated by knights working on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan. This might have been intended as an affront to Mamluk Sultan Khushqadam. On the 9th of October 1467, the Mamluk Sultan passed away and Qaitbay ascended to the throne. Qaitbay, already not a fan of the Ottomans, was skeptical of Muhammad II. A dangerous level of hostility started building up, especially after Muhammad II’s letter to Qaitbay where he hinted that the Mamluk Sultan was his 'enemy'. During this period, the Ottomans approached closer to the borders of the Mamluks. The relations between the two states were clearly strained. In one of the visits, the Ottoman ambassador, contrary to the norm, refused to kneel to the Mamluk Sultan. The two Empires were almost at the brink of war.

•    Mamluks between the Ottomans and Safavids

In 1488, the Turkish ruler of the Safavid order, Haydar, was killed in a conflict with the Shirvanshahs, the Arab Kings of Shirvan in modern-day Azerbaijan. His son, Ismail, went into hiding until he reached his early teens. At the heart of the Ottoman-Mamluk rivalry, Ismail started rising to power, securing lands until he conquered Iran in the early 1500s. Ismail, also known as Al Safawi or Sophy, set his eyes on the Levant. Aleppo was the key point in the Mamluk defensive system, both against the Safavids and against the Ottomans.

Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri ("Campson Gavro re d'Egitto") by Florentine painter Cristofano dell'Altissimo, Galleria degli Uffizi

In 1507, the Mamluk Vice-Sultan paraded the Syrian troops in Aleppo. The Safawid army had crossed the Euphrates in October and met the Mamluk army of Emir Ali Dülat. The Mamluk historian Ibn Iyas mentioned that the Safawids were defeated. These events took place in the presence of an Ottoman envoy in Cairo. Sultan Qansuh Al Ghouri bestowed robes of honour on him, and he was sent back to the Ottoman Sultan bearing the news. In December, Ismail I sent his envoys to the Mamluk Sultan with an apology letter emphasizing that the incident was not intended and that the Safawid soldiers lost their way. Keeping his doubts aside, the Mamluk Sultan accepted the apology and returned Safawid prisoners to Iran. Ibn Iyas commented: 

The Safavid envoys were very impudent; they wore red conical caps on their heads but were not as elegant as the Ottomans.

Meanwhile, tension continued to build up between the Mamluks, Ottomans, and Safawids. In March 1511, after Ismail I defeated and killed Özbeg Khan, a Tartar chieftain, he sent his envoys to Cairo. They arrived in Damascus in May 1511 and in Cairo in June of the same year. The letter of Ismail I was read in the presence of the Mamluk Emirs. When the gift box presented to the Sultan was opened, they found inside the head of Ozbeg Khän. Ismail's gift had its dangerous and unequivocal implications. The Shah was indirectly telling Al Ghouri that he was an old man who could not participate in battle and that he must leave the Mamluk Sultanate to vigorous men, like Shah Ismail, who can kill his enemies on the battlefield. The Mamluk Sultan was furious because Ismail I’s letter contained abusive verses insulting him. The Mamluk-Safawid relations went from bad to worse. In April of the following year, the Safawid infantry battalions rampaging in Mamluk domains were defeated by the Mamluk Emir of Sis. He then sent ten Safawid heads with red conical caps to the Sultan in Cairo. Al Ghouri immediately ordered these heads to be stuck on lances and put on display in the streets of Cairo, and finally to be hung on the gates of Bab Al Futuh and Bab Al Nasr.

Mosaic depicting the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 from Chehel Sotoun palace, Isfahan

 

No doubt, Shah Ismail was unhappy about this. He sent his delegation to Cairo with a letter to the Mamluk Sultan containing abusive words. Al Ghouri was enraged and sent the delegation back to Iran in less than a month with a letter containing abusive words. Al Ghouri, a man of experience, was more aware of Ismail I’s intentions than the Ottomans were. In July, Bayezid II (originally Abu Yazid) died, and Al Ghouri mourned him, ordering prayers in the mosques of Al Azhar, Al Hakem, and others. The Mamluks were saved from a definite clash with the Safawids because the circle of conflict was transferred to the Ottoman axis. The Ottomans did not want the Safawids to defeat the weak Mamluks and control the Islamic Holy cities. In 1514, the Ottomans and Safawids met at Chaldiran. Ismail I was defeated, and Selim I, also known as Yavuz Selim or Selim the Grim, entered Tabriz. When the news of the Ottoman victory arrived, Al Ghouri ordered the Quran to be recited in some of the mosques of Cairo and Fustat. But he did not order the drums to be beaten and did not declare that Cairo should be decorated in celebration of this occasion. The reason was obvious. The Mamluk Sultan was aware of the consequences of such a victory and realized that he would drink from the same cup as Ismail I.

Ottoman painting showing the head of Mamluk Sultan aAl Ghouri being remitted to Selim I

 

Following his victory, Selim I turned his attention to the Mamluks. He met Al-Ghouri in Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo, where the Mamluks were defeated, and their Sultan was killed on the battlefield. Selim I then marched to Egypt, conquering Cairo after the Battle of Al Raydaniya, bringing an end to the Mamluk Sultanate.

Bibliography

• Aylon, D. (1987). The End of the Mamluk Sultanate: (Why did the Ottomans Spare the Mamluks of Egypt and Wipe out the Mamluks of Syria?)

• Rabie, H. (1978). Relations Between the Safavids of Persia, the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria in the Early Sixteenth Century.

• Stantchev, S. (2010). Devedo: The Venetian Response to Sultan Mehmet II in the Venetian Ottoman Conflict of 1462-79.

• Walker, J. B. (2008). Popular Responses to Mamluk Fiscal Reforms in Syria.

• Wansbrough, J (1965). Venice and Florence in the Mamluk Commercial Privileges

•  Winter, M. (1980). Turks, Arabs and Mamluks in the army of Ottoman Egypt.

 

About me

Natalie Mallat is a freelance writer with a particular interest in Medieval Arab history. She enjoys running the history blog www.bibliotecanatalie.com. You can follow her Instagram @medievalarabhistory and LinkedIn @bibliotecanatalie for regular posts.

Pygmalion

Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw

The Power of Language: Shaw's Critique of Social Stratification in Pygmalion

 

Currently, we are examining Pygmalion, a renowned play from the Victorian Era, written by George Bernard Shaw and performed in 1913. In 1956, the theatrical adaptation of Pygmalion, titled My Fair Lady, premiered, and in 1964, a film featuring Audrey Hepburn in the lead role was released. The movie eventually secured eight Oscar Awards, notably clinching the Best Picture category.  Shaw, unlike many Victorian playwrights, often employed anticlimactic endings to challenge audience expectations and encourage new perspectives. To fully grasp plays from this era, understanding the historical context is crucial. I have shared a relevant blog on the Victorian Age.

 

George Bernard Shaw

Bernard Shaw, one of the most renowned playwrights, was born in 1856 and died in 1950. He was born in Dublin into a prosperous family. However, his father's failings led to the family's loss of status. When he was 16, his family separated, and his mother and sister moved to London. After four years of working various jobs, he also moved to London. He lived with his mother until he got married at the age of 42. Striving to make a living in London, he wrote five novels in six years, all of which were rejected by publishing companies. Additionally, he produced reviews of music, art, books, and drama, and wrote more than fifty plays in his career. In 1925, Shaw was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The 'fashionable drama' of the day has become increasingly unsatisfactory. Some believe that the current drama is unrelated to present-day issues. It is referred to as modern and realistic by some.

Shaw held the view that art ought not to be created merely for its own sake. Instead, he believed in the instructive nature of art, asserting that it should serve a purpose in shaping and improving society.

 

Characters in the Play

Flower Girl (Eliza Doolittle)

Women from the lower classes often made a living by selling flowers in London's open markets, restaurants, or going door-to-door. Someone like Eliza Doolittle would have earned around 38 pounds a year, while a lady working in a shop could bring in up to 300 pounds annually.

Mr. Higgins and Phonetics

In Pygmalion, Henry Higgins, a central figure, specializes in phonetics. During this era, a person's distinct pronunciation is influenced by either their regional or social origins. Additionally, it is shaped by the phonetic patterns ingrained in the speaker's native language, which may manifest when they speak another language. Henry Higgins uses proper English, the widely acknowledged standard form, and articulates his words meticulously, even when delivering insults. He selects his words with precision. On the other hand, Eliza communicates in the Cockney dialect, specific to London's impoverished working class, characterized by unique pronunciation and vocabulary.

Alfred Doolittle

Eliza's father is a dustman with a sonorous voice and Welsh accent, who proudly believes in his position as a member of the "undeserving".

 

Colonel Pickering

A respected former military officer with expertise in spoken Sanskrit visited England to meet the renowned Professor Henry Higgins. He displayed politeness towards Eliza and actively participated in Higgins' phonetics experiments aimed at instructing Eliza to speak like a duchess.

Mrs. Higgins

Henry Higgins’ mother thoroughly loves her son but also thoroughly disapproves of his manners, language and behaviours

Mrs. Eyensford-Hill

A woman from the upper-middle class who finds herself in somewhat challenging circumstances but is determined to maintain her refinement. She has two children.

Clara Eyensford-Hill

Her daughter, who tries to act the role of modern, advanced young person.

Freddy Eyensford-Hill

Her son, a pleasant young man, is enchanted by Eliza upon first meeting her.

Mrs. Pearce

Professor Higgins’s housekeeper for a long standing, she is the one who first sees the difficulty of what is to happen to Eliza after Higgins and Pickering have finished their experiment.

 

In my view, the play's central conflict revolves around a social issue, deviating from the typical happy resolution seen in comedies. Poverty in Edwardian Britain takes centre stage, turning Pygmalion into a problem play that addresses social inequality, particularly between men and women. Shaw suggests that Eliza Doolittle's chance at a better life depends on her participation in an experiment orchestrated by an affluent upper-class man, highlighting the persistent presence of poverty and stark disparities in wealth and opportunities between social classes. Shaw aimed to challenge and change this condition through Pygmalion. The play struggles with the issue which is in Britain and the problem is mainly related to women and their social status. For instance, Henry Higgins saved Eliza from the pavement of London, where she struggled to survive as a flower seller. He transformed her into a middle-class woman in reaction to the bet. Then, When he changes her clothing, accent and manners, she gains impressive success. Shaw challenges this view that social status supports the oppressive condition of the working classes. But we observe that rising social class is ambiguous. Therefore, when Eliza has been turned into a lady, Mrs. Higgins asks her son and Colonel Pickering, “What’s going to happen to her now?”

 

The play perfectly reflects the social norms of the Victorian era. The issue of education, which remains a common problem in our times, was a fundamental theme in the play. We observe the impact it has on a person's life through the teaching of correct pronunciation and good manners. The focal point of the play is the issue of social identity, reflected prominently in linguistic speech, which plays a crucial role in Eliza's transformation. Shaw uses accents not only as a marker of social status but also as a determinant of social acceptability, serving as the primary vehicle for his social critique in Pygmalion.

Arrogant

Higgins treats Eliza poorly, and this mistreatment is related to class distinction. Unlike Colonel Pickering, whose manners are uniformly pleasant, Higgins, even after Eliza wins the bet for him at the party, refers to her as a 'guttersnipe.

Morality

Another important aspect is middle-class morality. Bernard Shaw demonstrates a distinction between the higher class and the lower class through Doolittle. Likewise, he emphasizes that middle-class morality is inappropriate for lower-class people through the character of Alfred Doolittle. He does not want to be rich because he does not want responsibilities; he just wants money from Higgins, no other work. He lives with numerous women without marrying them. Eventually, he has to marry. He is reluctant to bear these responsibilities and prefers his former life. These attitudes relate to work responsibilities and morality that accompany the middle class.

Transformation

Eliza undergoes a remarkable change from a modest flower seller with a Cockney accent to a woman capable of blending into the upper class. With Higgins' guidance, she not only refines her speech, attire, and manners but also becomes a confident and assertive individual. Eliza's transformation extends beyond superficial changes, as she defies Higgins' objections to pursue her own path. She opens a flower shop and forms a relationship with Freddy, showcasing her newfound independence and resilience.

She no longer lives her life as Higgins.

 

Shaw explores the significant role of accent as a key factor in determining social identity and acceptance in a humorous way. Eliza's dialogue highlights a comedic contrast between the content of her speech and the manner in which she expresses herself, underscoring the societal importance placed on linguistic distinctions. Eliza's social identity has been altered by Higgins. Both Alfred Doolittle and Eliza become capable of playing the social roles of a lady and a gentleman as Alfred Doolittle gains wealth. Shaw contends that gentility is more than just money and the arbitrary stipulations of social behaviour. In the final act of the play; Eliza stresses to Higgins that when a child is brought to a foreign country, it picks up the language in a few weeks, and forgets its own. I have forgotten my language and can speak nothing but yours.

 

Conclusion

George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion stands as a thought-provoking piece that defies the conventions of Victorian-era plays. Shaw's departure from traditional happy endings and his deliberate incorporation of anticlimactic conclusions underscore his commitment to challenging societal norms and prompting audiences to reconsider their perspectives.

 George Bernard Shaw 

https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw16600/George-Bernard-Shaw

 

 

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Transcendentalism

The Flourishing of American Literature

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Transcendentalism

During the 1830s and 1840s, the frontier of American society moved westward, prompting writers such as Brackenridge and Cooper to find inspiration in the Western frontier for their literary works and American life. During this period, Boston and its surrounding towns and villages buzzed with intellectual fervour and energy. Education was no longer limited to Harvard in nearby Cambridge; other institutions also demonstrated a strong commitment to learning. The influential North American Review, established by Harvard professor Edward Channing in 1818, actively disseminated ideas, although it had become somewhat conservative by this time. Beginning in 1826, itinerant speakers have disseminated insights on culture and science to urban areas as well as the rural landscapes of New England. The establishment of entities such as the Useful Knowledge Society, Natural History Society, and the Mercantile Library Association played a pivotal role in cultivating a culture of regular attendance at lectures among numerous residents in New England. The younger generation engaged in extensive discussions about the emergence of a 'new Spiritual era.' Dissatisfied with conventional patriotism, the young intellectuals in Boston were uninterested in America's power and wealth, instead seeking a deeper exploration of the inner life. They examined the philosophers from Greece, Germany, and India. Several individuals documented their experiences and emotions in personal journals, while some embraced vegetarianism or nudism. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Transcendentalism is an idealistic idea in New England based on the fundamental unity of all creation, the innate goodness of humanity, and the belief in the superiority of inner experience over external circumstances. They saw both religions as "negative, cold, lifeless".  While they held Christ in high regard for the wisdom conveyed in his teachings, they considered the works of Shakespeare and renowned philosophers to be equally significant. The Transcendentalists tried to find the truth through feeling and intuition rather than through logic. They regarded nature as their "guiding scripture" in numerous aspects. The significance of birds, clouds, trees, and snow held a special meaning for them, forming a unique language through these natural images. Transcendentalists were split into two factions: one focused on societal change, and the other, exemplified by figures such as Emerson and Thoreau, prioritized individual concerns. In 1837, Emerson delivered a renowned address at Harvard University titled "The American Scholar." In this speech, he criticized the sway of tradition and the past while advocating for a fresh wave of American ingenuity. According to Emerson, the term "scholar" did not denote someone steeped in conventional book knowledge but rather an individual with original thinking abilities. Such a person understood themselves through intuition and the exploration of nature, not merely through the study of written works. He revised Self-Reliance (1841), which stands out as one of the most renowned lectures/essays and continues to be extensively studied in American high schools today.

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)

He criticized the Transcendentalists for overlooking the uncertainties that cast shadows over the world. His story "Celestial Railroad" (1843) is a satirical take on Christian, the protagonist from John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress." Hawthorne consistently explores the theme of individuals within societal contexts rather than focusing solely on the depiction of individuals in natural settings. His characters often harbour concealed feelings of guilt or personal issues that set them apart from others. These individuals grapple with emotions such as pride, envy, or a longing for revenge. Hawthorne's fascination with the darker aspects of the human psyche leads him to craft narratives reminiscent of the Gothic novel tradition. Hawthorne meticulously delves into the psychology of his characters in his initial novel, Fanshawe (1828), where themes of isolation and futility take centre stage. The narrative revolves around a young prodigy who passes away prior to achieving a monumental artistic feat. Attempting to emulate the prevalent Gothic fiction of the era, the novel is regarded by Hawthorne as a disappointment. Hawthorne's best work usually has a strong feeling for the Puritan past of seventeenth-century New England. This is the setting of The Scarlet Letter (1850), considered his masterpiece.