The Origins of Drama: Greek Theatre

 The Origins of Drama: Greek Theatre

 

We can say that Greek dramas are a source of inspiration for world theatre. Then, where did drama come from? We will delve into the fascinating history of drama, tracing its roots back to ancient rituals and exploring its evolution into the dynamic form of entertainment we know today. Drama emerged as a ritualistic practice in ancient civilizations. The origins of drama can be traced back to religious ceremonies and festivals held by the ancient Greeks, the ancient Greeks are often credited with the birth of drama. They held religious festivals called Dionysia, dedicated to the god Dionysus (god of wine and procreation), where theatrical performances were an essential component. These performances, known as tragedies or comedies, were staged in open-air amphitheatre and explored various themes of human existence. Dramas often focused on the interactions between gods and humans. Thespis was the first actor who performed around 534BC. Every year, the Greeks dedicated three separate week-long festivals to the dramatization of their stories. These festivals were held in March, January, and at different times throughout the year.

 

Aristotle’s Definition of Tragedy

According to Aristotle, the plot is the most crucial element of a tragedy. He emphasized that a well-structured plot must have a beginning, middle, and end, with a clear cause-and-effect chain. Aristotle believed that the characters in a tragedy should be morally complex and display both good and bad qualities. He emphasized the importance of character development throughout the play, with protagonists experiencing a reversal of fortune due to their own tragic flaws. The concept of morally complex characters is a cornerstone of modern storytelling. By creating protagonists with flaws and inner conflicts, playwrights can achieve greater audience engagement and evoke empathy in their viewers.

 

The Structure of Greek Tragedies

1.      The Prologue [opening scene]

2.      The Parados [first of the Chorus’s lyric songs]

3.      A regular alternation of scenes in Dialogue and Choral Odes

4.      The Exodos [concluding scene]

 

a)    Anagnorisis

Anagnorisis is a term used in literary analysis to refer to the moment of recognition or discovery in a play or narrative. It is when a character realizes an important truth or gains a new understanding about themselves, another character, or the situation they are in. Anagnorisis often leads to a significant change in the plot or the character's actions.

 

b)    Antagonist

In a Greek play, the antagonist refers to the primary adversary of the protagonist, who is the central character.

 

c)     Catharsis

Catharsis is a concept in psychology and literature referring to the release of emotional tension or purging of emotions. It is often associated with the idea of experiencing relief or purification through the expression or experiencing of strong emotions, such as fear, sadness, or anger. The term "catharsis" originated from ancient Greek philosophy and was further developed by Aristotle in his theory of tragedy, where he proposed that watching tragic plays could provide a cathartic experience for the audience. In modern psychology, catharsis is sometimes seen as a therapeutic process that allows individuals to confront and process their emotions in a healthy and constructive manner.

 

d)    Trilogy

A trilogy consists of three plays centred around a common subject or theme. The first play in this trilogy is "Oedipus the King," followed by "Oedipus at Colonus" and "Antigone," which focuses on Oedipus' daughter.

 

e)     Satire

Satire is a literary technique that uses humor, irony, or sarcasm to criticize or ridicule human vices, follies, or societal issues. It is often employed to draw attention to flaws or shortcomings in individuals, institutions, or society as a whole. Satire can take various forms, such as in literature, drama, film, or even political cartoons.

 

f)      Prologue / Prologos

The Prologue, also known as Prologos, is an introductory section that appears at the beginning of a play. It sets the stage for the story, provides background information, and introduces the main characters and their motivations.

 

g)    Peripateia

Peripateia refers to a sudden reversal of fortune or a turning point in a story. It is often used in dramatic or literary works to create tension and propel the plot forward.

 

h)    Hubris

Hubris is excessive pride or self-confidence, often leading to downfall or a loss of perspective. It can be dangerous and detrimental to one's character and relationships.

The sin of pride was deemed as a serious offense, as it focused excessively on personal desires, neglecting the needs of the state and putting the well-being of the community at risk.

 

i)       Hamartia

Hamartia is a term that refers to a flaw or error in judgment exhibited by the main character of a Greek tragedy. The word "hamartia" is derived from the Greek word "hamartanein" which means to make a mistake or to err. The first known usage of this term can be found in Aristotle's work, The Poetics.

 

j)      Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony occurs when a character is unaware or fails to comprehend something that is clear to the audience. For instance, Oedipus was unaware early on of what the audience knew: that he was married to his own mother, Jocasta. 

 

k)     Chorus

The chorus in Greek tragedies was an integral part of the theatrical experience and contributed to the overall impact of the plays. They were a group of performers who sang and danced together. The chorus provided commentary on the events of the play and expressed the collective emotions of the community. They often interacted with the main characters and offered advice or warnings. The chorus also helped to set the mood and atmosphere of the play through their music and movements. Their presence added a religious and ritualistic aspect to the performances.

 

l)       Fate vs. Destiny

The conflict between Fate and Destiny is a common theme in tragedies, where characters strive to defy predictions that are not in their favour. Yet, this struggle proves to be fruitless, as humans rarely possess the ability or fortune to alter their predetermined fate, which is controlled by cosmic forces or deities.

 

 

A CLASSIC GREEK TRAGEDY CONSISTS OF:

PROLOGUE

PARADOS

SCENE 1 (EPISODE 1)- action

ODE 1 (STASIMON 1)- chorus

SCENE 2 (EPISODE 2) - action

ODE 2 (STASIMON 2) - chorus

SCENE 3 (EPISODE 3) - action

ODE 3 (STASIMON 3) - chorus

SCENE 4 (EPISODE 4) - action

ODE 4 (STASIMON 4) - chorus

EXODUS

 

Sophocles and Greek Drama

Sophocles' impact on Greek drama cannot be overstated. Through his innovative storytelling techniques, deep exploration of complex characters, and profound exploration of moral dilemmas, he elevated theatre to new heights. His plays continue to be performed around the world, reminding us of the timeless power of Greek drama and its enduring relevance in modern society.

One of Sophocles' most well-known contributions to Greek drama is his trilogy of plays known as the Theban plays: "Oedipus Rex," "Oedipus at Colonus," and "Antigone." These plays revolve around the mythical city of Thebes and explore themes of fate, free will, and moral responsibility.

·         "Oedipus Rex": This play tells the tragic story of Oedipus, a king who unknowingly fulfills a prophecy by killing his father and marrying his mother. It is a powerful exploration of the human condition and the consequences of unchecked pride.

·         "Oedipus at Colonus": The second play in the trilogy focuses on Oedipus' later years as he seeks redemption and forgiveness. It delves into themes of aging, family bonds, and the power of forgiveness.

·         "Antigone": In this final play, Sophocles explores the conflict between divine law and human law through the character of Antigone. She defies King Creon's orders and buries her brother, leading to a tragic chain of events. "Antigone" raises questions about morality, justice, and the limits of power.

 

a)      Sophocles surprised Athenians by:

Winning first prize for tragedy at the festival of Dionysus, beating Aeschylus.

b)     Who was Aeschylus?

The leading playwright of the time (think Steven Speilberg)

c)      How many tragedies did Sophocles write?

He wrote more than 120 tragedies… only 7 still survive today.

d)     What was Sophocles concerned about?

He was concerned with the individual’s need to find his/her place in the world within the existing moral/cosmic order.

Moral lessons against too much pride and religious indifference.

e)      What did Sophocles add to Greek drama?

A third actor (originally two- used masks)

Painted sets

Larger chorus (from 12 to 15 members)

 

Characteristics of a Tragic Hero

Tragic heroes have been a recurring theme in literature for centuries, captivating readers with their complex and flawed nature. The concept of a tragic hero originated in ancient Greek dramas, with Aristotle providing a framework to define and understand these characters. A tragic hero is a protagonist who possesses certain traits that lead to their downfall. These characters are typically of high status or noble birth, possessing admirable qualities and potential for greatness. However, they are flawed in some way, often due to their hubris or excessive pride. This flaw, known as the "hamartia," becomes the catalyst for their tragic fate.

 

Conclusion

Greek drama and theatre stand as a testament to the artistic prowess and cultural significance of ancient Greece. From its humble origins in religious rituals to its evolution into a sophisticated theatrical tradition, Greek drama continues to captivate audiences worldwide. By understanding its historical context, key elements, and enduring legacy, we gain a deeper appreciation for an art form that has stood the test of time.

 

 

 

Puritanism: In America

Puritanism: from England to America (New England) 

 

Introduction 

Puritanism refers to a religious and cultural movement that emerged during the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in England and later spread to the American colonies. The development of American individualism and democratic ideas were clearly shaped by the impact of Puritanism in New England. Puritanism also influenced the national character of American people, instilling values of diligence and frugality, and cultivating a strong sense of purpose. Additionally, Puritanism contributed to Americans’ commitment to popular education. Puritans sought to reform the Church of England and eliminate what they saw as remnants of Roman Catholicism. The Puritans were considered the more radical Protestants within the Church during the 16th century in England. They emphasized strict adherence to biblical teachings, simple worship, and moral purity. The Puritans placed a strng emphasis on personal piety, hard work, and self-discipline. They played a significant role in shaping the early American colonies and their religious and social practices. 

 

The Emergence of American Puritanism  

After the James I ascended the British throne, Puritans pioneers proposed to James to reform such as the elimination of bishops. One of the primary goals of the Puritans was the abolition of the clergy, as they believed that the clergy constituted a significant obstacle to pure Christianity. Nonetheless, he turned down the majority of their suggestions. On that occasion, the English authorities and the religious establishment became more oppressive, leading to the persecution of numerous Puritans who were compelled to relocate to Europe and the Americas. In the early 17th century, English Puritans arrived in North America, commonly referred to as the English Pilgrims. Plymouth Colony was founded in 1620. Subsequently, an increasing number of Puritans relocated and established additional settlements, such as those in Massachusetts (1628), New Hampshire (1629), Connecticut (1633), Maine (1635), Rhode Island (1636), and New Haven (1638). They established a holy Commonwealth in New England, making it their primary stronghold. In New England, the Puritans upheld the Calvinist belief in a clear division between those predestined for salvation (the elect) and those condemned to damnation. They believed that Puritans were duty-bound by God and selected for a special purpose. Following the 17th century, the Puritans as a political force mostly faded away, yet their beliefs and moral principles continued to shape American society. They promoted qualities such as self-reliance, thriftiness, hard work, and energy, which in turn had a significant impact on contemporary social and economic aspects. (The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2007: 39583) Their concern for education was important in the development of the United States, and the idea of congregational democratic church government was carried into the political life of the state as a source of modern democracy.  

 

The Tenets of American Puritanism 

1. 1- Godly people were sober, hardworking, and responsible. English society had been corrupted by foreign influences and by disorder and needed to be purified. 

2. 2- Catholicism had undermined the relationship between God and the individual 

3. 3- Election & predestination – God chooses who is saved and who is damned. No one can earn salvation through work. Yet the saints are responsible for their actions. 

4. 4- The congregation of saints chooses its members, hires and fires its ministers, and recognizes no other religious authority. 

5. 5- Worship should be plain, lack mystery, and be focused on God, No stained glass, instrumental music, or art. 

6. 6- Much value of education. 

7. 7- Intolerance – error must be opposed and driven out. 

8. 
   

(Feldmeth, Greg D. “American Puritanism,” U.S. History Resources. Revised 21 June 2004) 

 

The fundamental principle of Puritanism emphasized that God's supreme authority in the church and human affairs was revealed through the Bible. Therefore, they made a dedicated endeavour to ensure that both individuals and corporations followed the guidance of the Bible, emphasizing the importance of upholding moral values on a personal level and maintaining the sanctity of their religious institutions. Puritans was separated from other Christians due to their adherence to the concept of predestination. Puritans believed that salvation couldn't be achieved solely through faith in Jesus and the observance of sacraments. They held that salvation couldn't be determined by an individual's choice; rather, it was exclusively within God's domain. The Puritans believed that human nature was inherently sinful and corrupt, and they believed that only through strict and relentless discipline could individuals attain goodness. Every individual should continually undergo a transformation through the divine grace of God, in order to confront the presence of sin within them and consistently act in accordance with God's will. So, they viewed diligent effort as a religious obligation and emphasized the importance of continuous self-reflection and self-control. The Puritans promoted a simple and compliant way of life, with a strong emphasis on individual Bible study. They held the belief that every person could serve as their own priest. Additionally, Puritan theology and societal connections revolve around the idea of an agreement or pact forged between God and His chosen followers. Within Puritan beliefs, various covenant types hold significant importance, including the Covenant of Works, Covenant of Grace, and Covenant of Redemption. 

 

The Impact upon American Social Life 

Puritanism is much more than a religious belief. It is a philosophy, a combination of lifestyles with living values. Its impact on American culture has been significant, contributing to the formation of the American national identity. The roots of several prevalent American values, like individualism, egalitarianism, and optimism, can be traced back to the Puritan beliefs of the colonial era. Individualism, a fundamental aspect of American values, has its origins in early American Puritanism and is widely recognized. It has its origins deeply connected to the beliefs of early American Puritans. Puritanism highly values self-sufficiency, personal privacy, and treating others with respect. This way of thinking, which originated from religious reform, embraces a deep awareness of individuality and a resistance to authority. To put it simply, the Puritans believed that you could connect with God through your faith without needing the Pope's approval. This meant that every Christian could talk to God directly and didn't require a priest to do it for them. As we mentioned before, the major reason Puritans opposed the clergy was to serve as intermediaries between men and God. Moreover, inspired by Martin Luther's ideas, the Puritans created their own church, selected their own religious leaders, and got rid of the old system where the church had a strict hierarchy. As a result, Christians were no longer bound by strict Roman Catholic regulations. The church transformed into a more flexible group of Christians, and individuals could now personally seek salvation through their own spiritual journey. Clearly, the Puritans' resistance to authority and their strong sense of self helped lay the foundation for individualism in colonial America, which eventually became a key value for the American people. 

 

American democracy has always been seen as a model for Western democracies. United States Declaration of Independence (1776) shows us that “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness”. With the end of the War of Independence, the United States continued to embrace its system of constitutional democracy. The government had three main parts: executive, legislative, and judicial. The Puritan belief that communities were formed by covenants produced America’s first democratic institution, the town meeting. At the town meeting every church member had the right to speak, and decisions were made by majority rule. 

(“Puritanism” Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 008: http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565242/puritanism.html) 

United States Declaration of Independence  

(1776) 

American Puritans had the freedom to create their own churches, where they could select their own leaders and run things independently. In the church, there wasn't a strict pecking order, and this kind of church setup played a role in shaping the democracy we have in America today. Puritans in America thought that being rich meant God liked you, and they felt that working really hard was how you made God happy. Working hard and saving money would ensure that you are among those chosen by God and become wealthier. The doctrine of predestination encouraged all Puritans to continually strive to do good in this life, believing that they were chosen for the next eternal life. God had already decided who would go to heaven or hell, but Christians had no way of knowing which group they were in. Puritans believed that working hard was a way to show their dedication to God and that it would ultimately result in success and blessings. In the American colonies, there were Christians who talked about these moral principles, and people like Benjamin Franklin really pushed the idea of working hard and being frugal. Benjamin Franklin's writings helped instil those values in the minds of the American people, especially. In particular, Benjamin Franklin's writings helped instil those values in the minds of the American people. Numerous Americans have pulled themselves out of poverty, achieved wealth, and earned the respect of society through their own efforts. Before the Civil War, the idea of working hard and saving money had really pushed the growth of American capitalism. This number was really important during the time when they were rebuilding things after the war and when they were spreading out west. Throughout American history, people have often felt a duty to share ideas of fairness, equality, and freedom globally, striving to guide humanity toward a better future.  

This strong sense of purpose was ingrained in American culture and had a significant impact on what the American people believed in and how they saw things. The strong feeling of purpose motivated the early Puritans as they worked to establish a new life in the New World. Their goal is to share their democracy and freedom, as they believe it's what God wants, with people all over the world and to bring positivity everywhere. As a result, the United States started using their influence to spread their culture and values to other countries through things like political involvement, financial assistance, or military force. The Puritans were really enthusiastic about education, and this enthusiasm came from their belief in the 'Covenant' doctrine. According to this theology, because people inherited sin from Adam, they thought schools were essential to teach people how to overcome their sinful nature and save themselves. 

 

The Puritans believed that teaching people about Christianity was really important, and they thought the Bible should be at the heart of education. They wanted everyone, especially regular folks, to be educated and enlightened. They aimed to ensure that ordinary folks could read and grasp the Bible on their own. Reading the Bible was seen as crucial for leading a devout life. Teaching the next generation was also essential to make the church better and society more righteous. This perspective can be traced back to the beliefs of Martin Luther, who recommended that the most important reading material for people, whether in universities or schools, should be the Holy Scriptures. He even advised against sending your child to institutions where the Holy Scriptures are not highly valued. They didn't limit learning to just religious topics. In fact, they thought that all knowledge, no matter where it came from, was valuable because they believed that all truth was a gift from God. 

 

To sum up, puritanism used to be a big deal in New England, but even though it's not around anymore, its impact on what Americans believe and how they live is still really important. It's clear that the values and way of life of Americans today are a far cry from what the Puritans in New England used to preach.