African American Criticism: Identity, History, and Representation

African American Criticism: Identity, History, and Representation

African American critical theory attempts to address the essentialized representations of the “other” in dominant writing. The theory aims to expose stereotypes, show how representations shape cultural understanding, and recover marginalized works by those outside the dominant hegemony. African American critics integrate their work into a broader historical and cultural context, highlighting silenced voices. They celebrate marginalized identities as valuable, valid, and equal, while deconstructing binary hierarchies that reinforce racial superiority. They also argue that racialism—the belief in racial superiority and purity—fuels discriminatory practices in society.

The exclusion of African American history and culture from American education persisted until the late 1960s. For decades, American history books omitted key figures and events to maintain white cultural hegemony.

• For instance, the Harlem Renaissance, a pivotal cultural movement in the 1920s, was largely overlooked in textbooks.
• A detailed history of slave resistance would have shattered racist stereotypes about contented slaves.
• Recognizing African American literary genius would have undermined the myth of black inferiority that upheld racist policies.

Since much of African American literature addresses racism, it serves as a historical record of black experiences. Racism refers to the unequal power structures that result in systematic discrimination, such as segregation, persecution, and economic oppression. When racism becomes institutionalized, it is embedded in key societal structures, including education, government, legal systems, healthcare, and corporate hiring practices.

For centuries, the Western literary canon has been dominated by Eurocentrism—the belief in European cultural superiority. African American literature, dating back to the 18th century, was dismissed as a minor tributary rather than a vital part of American literary history. Until recently, American literature anthologies included primarily white male writers, reinforcing white cultural dominance.

• This situation is slowly changing, but black writers remain underrepresented in academic syllabi.
• However, contemporary authors such as Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, Maya Angelou, and August Wilson have gained widespread recognition.

Institutionalized racism fosters racist stereotypes and narrow beauty standards favoring Anglo-Saxon ideals. Before the "Black is Beautiful" movement of the 1960s, many African Americans experienced internalized racism—the belief in white superiority.

• Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye (1970) provides a chilling portrayal of this phenomenon, with its protagonist Pecola Breedlove wishing for blue eyes to be seen as beautiful.
• This issue extends to intra-racial racism, where lighter-skinned black individuals receive privilege over those with darker skin.

W. E. B. DuBois coined the term "double consciousness" in The Souls of Black Folk (1903). It describes the conflicting identities of African Americans: one rooted in African heritage and one imposed by white American culture. This dual identity often results in code-switching, where African Americans navigate different cultural expectations at home and in public spaces.

• African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a legitimate language but is still wrongly dismissed as incorrect English.

Basic Tenets of Critical Race Theory

1.    Everyday racism is a common experience for people of color in the United States.

2.  Racism is often driven by interest convergence, meaning it aligns with the interests of dominant groups, especially whites.

3.     Race is socially constructed, with no inherent biological basis.

4.  Racism takes different forms, including differential racialization, where different racial groups are racialized in varying ways at different times based on societal needs.

5.   Everyone’s identity is shaped by intersectionality, where factors like race, class, gender, and sexual orientation overlap.

6.  Racial minorities have a unique "voice of color" because their experiences give them a distinct perspective on race and racism.

Key Concepts in Critical Race Theory

Everyday Racism: Many white Americans define racism narrowly, thinking it only refers to extreme cases like verbal or physical attacks, but racism is also embedded in everyday life and institutional practices.

Interest Convergence: Racism often serves the material or psychological interests of dominant groups. For instance, it benefits wealthy whites financially to exploit black labor, and it helps working-class whites feel superior to racial minorities.

The Social Construction of Race: The idea of race was originally used for convenience, but over time it became a tool for social stratification, claiming some races are superior to others. However, scientists have rejected race as a biological category.

Differential Racialization: The way racial groups are defined by dominant society shifts over time based on changing societal needs.

Intersectionality: Identity is complex and shaped by overlapping factors like race, gender, class, and personal experiences. This leads to multiple layers of oppression for some individuals.

Voice of Color: Minority writers and thinkers have a unique perspective on race and racism, providing insights that whites, who do not experience racism directly, cannot.

 Analysis Framework for African American Criticism

African American Criticism as a Subject: This approach focuses on literature produced by African Americans, analysing their cultural history, identity, and experiences, particularly regarding marginalization.

The Racial Politics of African American Works: How do these works address racial oppression or liberation? Do they challenge stereotypes, correct historical misrepresentations, celebrate African American culture, or explore racism’s economic, social, or psychological effects?

Poetics in African American Literature: Does the work use Black Vernacular English? Does it incorporate African myths, folk tales, or cultural imagery? How do these elements relate to the work’s themes and meaning?

Participation in the African American Literary Tradition: How does the work align with or break from other works in the African American literary tradition? Does it contribute to redefining literary aesthetics or challenge traditional forms?

Critical Race Theory in the Text: How does the work illustrate concepts like interest convergence, white privilege, or the social construction of race? How do these insights deepen our understanding of the text?

Africanist Presence in White Writers’ Works: How do white writers use black characters, imagery associated with Africa, or African American culture to create positive portrayals of white characters?