Ecocriticism: A New Approach in Literary Studies

Ecocriticism: A New Approach in Literary Studies

Before, in theory and criticism, we usually focused on events, topics, and metaphysical ideas. But now, we will examine a concrete reality: Ecocriticism, which has recently attracted a lot of attention from scholars. We are looking at nature—the ground we stand on and the air we breathe—moving away from abstract thoughts. Nature is no longer just a background in literature; it takes centre stage in the story. Ecocriticism studies the place and importance of nature in literature. It tries to understand how people relate to nature, how they treat it, and how these relationships are reflected in texts. This theory encourages us not only to think about books but also about the world we live in. Because nature is not just a background; it is the foundation of our lives. Understanding and protecting it is everyone’s responsibility. First, we will start our article by looking at the historical background of ecocriticism—how and why it emerged. We will ask some questions and try to find the answers together. Then, starting from the term Environmentalism, we will meet some important writers. Moreover, we will explore key figures in ecocriticism, such as Serpil Oppermann and Greg Garrard. We will also discuss the main characteristics of ecocriticism and examine its different waves or phases. By the end of our study, we hope to better understand how ecocriticism helps us see the connection between literature and the environment, and why this relationship matters today more than ever.

The Idea of Ecocriticism

Ecocriticism came about because of several natural crises we face today, such as:

• Pollution
• Global warming
• Overpopulation
• Waste disposal (including nuclear waste)
• Climate change
• Deforestation
• Ozone layer depletion

These problems made people ask important questions:

• What exactly is nature?
• Where does humans’ place lie in nature?
• Is nature only here to serve human needs?
• How should we understand nature today, especially with ongoing ecological disasters?
• What role can literature and literary studies play in ecology?

Ecocriticism studies the relationship between literature and the environment from many different fields. Critics look at how nature is shown in texts and think about possible solutions to today’s environmental problems. They explore how literature talks about nature and what it teaches us about our world.

Ecocriticism is one of the newest movements that has changed the way we study the humanities. It started to grow in the 1990s, mainly in the US and the UK. More and more literary scholars began asking how their work could help us understand the growing environmental crisis. So, what is this new theory about? Ecocriticism asks us to rethink other types of criticism. It challenges traditional ideas about language and offers a fresh way to look at literary works.

One of the leading figures in ecocriticism, Cheryll Glotfelty, explains it simply: “Ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment.”

Environmentalism and Its Roots in Literature

Environmentalism is a broad term that refers to caring for the environment and taking action to reduce the harmful effects humans have on it. In the USA, ecocriticism draws inspiration from 19th-century Transcendentalist writers who celebrated nature, life, and wilderness. Some of these important figures are Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, and Henry David Thoreau.

Ralph Waldo Emerson’s first short book, Nature (published in 1836), is an essay reflecting on how the natural world affected him. His writing often shows a direct and powerful connection with nature. For example, he writes:

"Crossing a bare common, in snow puddles, at twilight, under a clouded sky, without having in my thoughts any occurrence of special good fortune, I have enjoyed a perfect exhilaration. I am glad to the brink of fear.” (Emerson 38)

Margaret Fuller and Her Connection to Nature

Margaret Fuller’s first book, Summer on the Lakes (1843), is a powerful journal about her experiences with the American landscape. Before writing this, she was the first woman student at Harvard, which was a big achievement at the time.

In her book, she describes places like Niagara Falls with strong and vivid language. For example, she writes:

"For here there is no escape from the weight of perpetual creation; all other forms and motions come and go, the tide rises and recedes, the wind, at its mightiest, moves in gales and gusts, but here is really an incessant, an indefatigable motion. Awake or asleep, there is no escape, still this rushing round you and through you. It is in this way I have most felt grandeur—somewhat eternal, if not infinite." (Fuller, 71)

Thoreau, Transcendentalism, and Differences Between US and UK Ecocriticism

Thoreau’s Walden tells the story of his two-year stay, starting in 1845, in a small hut he built by Walden Pond in Massachusetts. This book is a classic example of leaving behind modern life to find renewal by “returning to nature.” Because of this, the three books by these Transcendentalist writers—Emerson, Fuller, and Thoreau—are seen as foundational works of American ecocriticism.

On the other hand, the UK’s version of ecocriticism, often called “green studies,” has its roots in British Romanticism from the 1790s, rather than American Transcendentalism of the 1840s.

In general, the US prefers the term “ecocriticism,” which tends to have a more positive, celebratory tone toward nature. In contrast, the British “green studies” often sound more serious and warning, focusing on environmental dangers caused by governments, industries, and businesses.

Major Figures in Ecocriticism

Cheryll Glotfelty

• The first Professor of Literature and Environment in the USA.
• In 1996, she co-edited The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology with Harold Fromm. This anthology helped bring environmental concerns into literary studies.
• Co-founder and past president of the Association for the Study of Literature and Environment (ASLE).

Lawrence Buell

• One of the founding scholars of ecocriticism, with many books and articles on nature and literature.
• His key work, The Environmental Imagination, traces how writers from Thoreau to the present imagine nature.
• Buell argues that an environmentally focused text should:

1.  Treat the nonhuman environment as an active part of the story, not just background.

2.     Show that human interests are not the only important ones.

3.  Include human responsibility to nature as part of its ethical message.

Greg Garrard

• FCCS Sustainability Professor at the University of British Columbia and a National Teaching Fellow in the UK.
• Founding member and former Chair of the Association for the Study of Literature and the Environment (UK & Ireland).
• Author of Ecocriticism (Routledge, 2004; 2nd ed. 2011) and editor of:
• Teaching Ecocriticism and Green Cultural Studies (Palgrave, 2011)
• The Oxford Handbook of Ecocriticism (OUP, 2014)
• Co-editor of Green Letters: Studies in Ecocriticism, with essays on eco-pedagogy, animal studies, and environmental criticism.

Serpil Oppermann

• A leading Turkish scholar in ecocriticism.
• Published many research articles on ecocriticism and postmodern English literature.
• Editor of Material Ecocriticism, a recent volume that brings new perspectives on how we study nature in literature.

What Are the Main Characteristics of Ecocriticism?

Ecocriticism is a literary approach that explores the connection between nature and culture. It asks important questions about how nature is shown in literature and how we, as humans, interact with the environment.

One of the key ideas in ecocriticism is that not everything is created by society or language. In other words, nature exists outside of human systems too. Ecocritics believe we must look beyond just human-centered (anthropocentric) views.

A well-known definition of ecocriticism comes from The Ecocriticism Reader (1996), a major book in the field. In it, Cheryll Glotfelty writes:

“Simply put, ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. Just as feminist criticism focuses on gender and Marxist criticism focuses on class, ecocriticism takes an earth-centred approach to literature.” (Glotfelty 1996: xix)

Glotfelty also lists the kinds of questions ecocritics ask, such as:

• How is nature shown in this poem or novel?
• How has the idea of "wilderness" changed over time?
• Can science be examined in a literary way?
• How can literary studies work together with history, philosophy, art, or ethics to understand the environment better?

Ecocriticism also challenges the old belief that humans are the rulers of nature. But it doesn’t see nature as a passive victim either. Instead, it highlights balance and respect.

Ecocritics encourage us to reread important literary texts with new eyes—to move away from the idea that humans are always at the centre. They often use ideas from philosophy and biology to better understand the ties between people, culture, and the natural world. By doing so, ecocritics aim to create ecological awareness and build eco-ethics—a way of thinking that respects both nature and culture together.

Key Concepts in Ecocriticism

What does it mean to read literature through the eyes of the Earth?

Ecocriticism—a poetic rebellion against human-centred narratives—invites us to see the world not as a backdrop to human drama, but as a character in its own right.

Anthropocentrism: Human at the Centre

Anthropocentrism is the belief—sometimes quiet, sometimes thunderous—that humans matter more than everything else.

In this worldview:

• Nature exists for human use.
• The environment is shaped to suit our needs.
• Other life forms become secondary or invisible.

This can manifest as:

• Strong anthropocentrism – a confident belief in human dominance over nature.
• Weak anthropocentrism – the view that while nature matters, human interests still take precedence in practice, due to necessity or strategy.

But here's the paradox:

Can we hold biocentric values in our hearts, yet act within anthropocentric boundaries?
The ecocritic answers: Yes, but we must be honest about it.

Biocentrism: Life at the Centre

Biocentrism shifts the focus. Now, the forest speaks. The rivers have rights. The butterfly matters.

All life forms—including humans—are part of a vast biotic web.

In biocentric or ecocentric thinking:

• Human concerns do not override the needs of other beings.
• The Earth is not ours to conquer, but ours to commune with.

This view challenges the literature to stop seeing nature as a silent stage and start hearing it as a vibrant, complex voice.

What Do Ecocritics Do?

Ecocritics are the wanderers of literary landscapes who listen for the rustling of leaves between the lines. Their tasks include:

• Re-reading literature through an ecocentric lens—paying attention to how nature is represented.
• Expanding critical tools: using concepts like growth, energy, symbiosis, sustainability—not just metaphorically, but ethically.
• Highlighting authors who place nature at the centre of their works, such as the American Transcendentalists or British Romantics.
• Valuing ‘factual’ writing—essays, travelogues, memoirs, regional literature—where human interaction with nature is directly expressed.
• Turning away from purely linguistic theories, favouring ethical responsibility and ecological awareness.

“The world is not just a text. The world is the world.” — The Ecocritic’s Creed

Conclusion

The ecocritical approach allows us to read literature not only through human perspectives but also through its relationship with nature. In this view, nature is not just a background, but an active element in the creation of meaning.

In Shakespeare’s As You Like It, the forest becomes a place where people reconnect, simplify their thoughts and emotions. Nature plays a healing and instructive role here.

On the other hand, in King Lear, nature appears as a powerful force that witnesses the character’s inner breakdown. Lear’s confrontation with the storm reflects not only the weather but also the turmoil within his soul.

These examples show that nature is not a passive ornament in literary works; it is a presence that thinks, speaks, and transforms alongside humans. Ecocritical readings invite us to reconnect with nature and to listen to its voice in literature.

African American Criticism: Identity, History, and Representation

African American Criticism: Identity, History, and Representation

African American critical theory attempts to address the essentialized representations of the “other” in dominant writing. The theory aims to expose stereotypes, show how representations shape cultural understanding, and recover marginalized works by those outside the dominant hegemony. African American critics integrate their work into a broader historical and cultural context, highlighting silenced voices. They celebrate marginalized identities as valuable, valid, and equal, while deconstructing binary hierarchies that reinforce racial superiority. They also argue that racialism—the belief in racial superiority and purity—fuels discriminatory practices in society.

The exclusion of African American history and culture from American education persisted until the late 1960s. For decades, American history books omitted key figures and events to maintain white cultural hegemony.

• For instance, the Harlem Renaissance, a pivotal cultural movement in the 1920s, was largely overlooked in textbooks.
• A detailed history of slave resistance would have shattered racist stereotypes about contented slaves.
• Recognizing African American literary genius would have undermined the myth of black inferiority that upheld racist policies.

Since much of African American literature addresses racism, it serves as a historical record of black experiences. Racism refers to the unequal power structures that result in systematic discrimination, such as segregation, persecution, and economic oppression. When racism becomes institutionalized, it is embedded in key societal structures, including education, government, legal systems, healthcare, and corporate hiring practices.

For centuries, the Western literary canon has been dominated by Eurocentrism—the belief in European cultural superiority. African American literature, dating back to the 18th century, was dismissed as a minor tributary rather than a vital part of American literary history. Until recently, American literature anthologies included primarily white male writers, reinforcing white cultural dominance.

• This situation is slowly changing, but black writers remain underrepresented in academic syllabi.
• However, contemporary authors such as Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, Maya Angelou, and August Wilson have gained widespread recognition.

Institutionalized racism fosters racist stereotypes and narrow beauty standards favoring Anglo-Saxon ideals. Before the "Black is Beautiful" movement of the 1960s, many African Americans experienced internalized racism—the belief in white superiority.

• Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye (1970) provides a chilling portrayal of this phenomenon, with its protagonist Pecola Breedlove wishing for blue eyes to be seen as beautiful.
• This issue extends to intra-racial racism, where lighter-skinned black individuals receive privilege over those with darker skin.

W. E. B. DuBois coined the term "double consciousness" in The Souls of Black Folk (1903). It describes the conflicting identities of African Americans: one rooted in African heritage and one imposed by white American culture. This dual identity often results in code-switching, where African Americans navigate different cultural expectations at home and in public spaces.

• African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a legitimate language but is still wrongly dismissed as incorrect English.

Basic Tenets of Critical Race Theory

1.    Everyday racism is a common experience for people of color in the United States.

2.  Racism is often driven by interest convergence, meaning it aligns with the interests of dominant groups, especially whites.

3.     Race is socially constructed, with no inherent biological basis.

4.  Racism takes different forms, including differential racialization, where different racial groups are racialized in varying ways at different times based on societal needs.

5.   Everyone’s identity is shaped by intersectionality, where factors like race, class, gender, and sexual orientation overlap.

6.  Racial minorities have a unique "voice of color" because their experiences give them a distinct perspective on race and racism.

Key Concepts in Critical Race Theory

Everyday Racism: Many white Americans define racism narrowly, thinking it only refers to extreme cases like verbal or physical attacks, but racism is also embedded in everyday life and institutional practices.

Interest Convergence: Racism often serves the material or psychological interests of dominant groups. For instance, it benefits wealthy whites financially to exploit black labor, and it helps working-class whites feel superior to racial minorities.

The Social Construction of Race: The idea of race was originally used for convenience, but over time it became a tool for social stratification, claiming some races are superior to others. However, scientists have rejected race as a biological category.

Differential Racialization: The way racial groups are defined by dominant society shifts over time based on changing societal needs.

Intersectionality: Identity is complex and shaped by overlapping factors like race, gender, class, and personal experiences. This leads to multiple layers of oppression for some individuals.

Voice of Color: Minority writers and thinkers have a unique perspective on race and racism, providing insights that whites, who do not experience racism directly, cannot.

 Analysis Framework for African American Criticism

African American Criticism as a Subject: This approach focuses on literature produced by African Americans, analysing their cultural history, identity, and experiences, particularly regarding marginalization.

The Racial Politics of African American Works: How do these works address racial oppression or liberation? Do they challenge stereotypes, correct historical misrepresentations, celebrate African American culture, or explore racism’s economic, social, or psychological effects?

Poetics in African American Literature: Does the work use Black Vernacular English? Does it incorporate African myths, folk tales, or cultural imagery? How do these elements relate to the work’s themes and meaning?

Participation in the African American Literary Tradition: How does the work align with or break from other works in the African American literary tradition? Does it contribute to redefining literary aesthetics or challenge traditional forms?

Critical Race Theory in the Text: How does the work illustrate concepts like interest convergence, white privilege, or the social construction of race? How do these insights deepen our understanding of the text?

Africanist Presence in White Writers’ Works: How do white writers use black characters, imagery associated with Africa, or African American culture to create positive portrayals of white characters?

Postcolonial Criticism: Decolonizing Literature, Identity, and Power

Postcolonial Criticism: Decolonizing Literature, Identity, and Power

Postcolonial criticism covers a much broader area compared to other literary theories we've explored so far. Understanding this approach requires not only knowing the historical context but also grasping the cultural, economic, and political dynamics at play. This is because postcolonial theory doesn’t just analyse texts—it also examines how identities are formed in postcolonial societies, the power of language, and how cultural representations shape our understanding of the world.

For instance, while Marxist criticism focuses on power struggles between economic classes and feminist theory questions how gender is represented in literature, queer theory challenges traditional ideas of sexuality. Postcolonial criticism, however, intersects with all of these approaches. It considers economic exploitation, gender roles, identity, and language politics all at once.

One of the biggest contributions of postcolonial theory to literary criticism is its challenge to Western-centric narratives. Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) laid the groundwork for this field by showing how the West has historically portrayed the East as exotic and inferior. Similarly, Homi Bhabha’s concept of hybridity and Gayatri Spivak’s famous question, “Can the subaltern speak?” help us explore how marginalized voices express themselves in a world shaped by colonialism.

Ultimately, postcolonial criticism is more than just a literary theory—it’s also a form of resistance and rewriting. By questioning the dominant Western perspective, it brings attention to the stories and histories that have been overlooked and encourages us to rethink how identities and cultural perceptions have been shaped over time.

Postcolonial criticism operates both as a subject of study and as a theoretical framework. As a subject, it focuses on the literature produced by colonized and formerly colonized cultures, examining how these societies responded to colonial rule. Some of this literature was written by the colonizers themselves, reflecting their perspective on the lands they occupied. However, the most significant contributions have come from the voices of the colonized, who use literature as a means of resistance, identity formation, and cultural reclamation.

Beyond literature, postcolonial criticism also functions as a broader theoretical approach, seeking to understand the political, social, cultural, and psychological effects of colonialism. Cultural colonization is one of its lasting legacies—long after gaining political independence, many former colonies remained shaped by European systems of government, education, and social values. This influence often led to a crisis of identity, as indigenous cultures were devalued or erased, leaving generations of formerly colonized peoples struggling with alienation from their own heritage.

One of the key concerns of postcolonial criticism is the construction of identity in literature. Colonialist discourse was built on the assumption that European culture was superior, portraying native peoples as primitive and backward. This shaped not only how Europeans viewed the world but also how colonized peoples came to see themselves. Through the works of authors like Chinua Achebe, Salman Rushdie, and Jamaica Kincaid, postcolonial literature challenges colonial narratives, reclaims lost histories, and redefines cultural identity in a postcolonial world.

Colonialist Ideology and Postcolonial Identity

Colonialist ideology positioned European culture as the ultimate standard, portraying native peoples as the "other"—inferior, uncivilized, and even less than fully human. This perspective, now referred to as Eurocentrism, defined Western nations as superior while depicting non-Western societies as primitive. Orientalism, a concept analysed by Edward Said, is a prime example of this Eurocentric mind-set. It involves the West projecting negative qualities onto the East to construct a superior self-image. The success of this ideology led to the emergence of colonial subjects, individuals who internalized the colonizers' values and sought to mimic their speech, dress, and customs, often feeling ashamed of their own heritage.

The psychological effects of colonial rule created a double consciousness, a term describing the divided identity of colonized individuals, caught between their indigenous culture and the dominant colonial influence. Homi Bhabha introduced the concept of unhomeliness, which describes the feeling of not belonging anywhere, even within one’s own homeland. Many postcolonial critics argue that identity is not static but hybrid, blending native and colonial influences into a dynamic, evolving cultural force. At the same time, some ex-colonials emphasize nativism or nationalism, striving to reclaim and reinforce indigenous traditions to resist Western cultural dominance.

Feminist and Postcolonial Criticism share many concerns, as both address systems of oppression—patriarchy and colonialism—that marginalize and devalue individuals. Postcolonial women face double colonization, being oppressed both by colonialist ideology (due to race and culture) and patriarchal structures (due to gender). Their struggle for autonomy, representation, and equality highlights the intersectionality of race, gender, and colonial history, making their voices central to both postcolonial and feminist discourses.

Colonialist Ideology and Postcolonial Identity

Colonialist ideology positioned European culture as the ultimate standard, portraying native peoples as the "other"—inferior, uncivilized, and even less than fully human. This perspective, now referred to as Eurocentrism, defined Western nations as superior while depicting non-Western societies as primitive. Orientalism, a concept analysed by Edward Said, is a prime example of this Eurocentric mind-set. It involves the West projecting negative qualities onto the East to construct a superior self-image. The success of this ideology led to the emergence of colonial subjects, individuals who internalized the colonizers' values and sought to mimic their speech, dress, and customs, often feeling ashamed of their own heritage.

The psychological effects of colonial rule created a double consciousness, a term describing the divided identity of colonized individuals, caught between their indigenous culture and the dominant colonial influence. Homi Bhabha introduced the concept of unhomeliness, which describes the feeling of not belonging anywhere, even within one’s own homeland. Many postcolonial critics argue that identity is not static but hybrid, blending native and colonial influences into a dynamic, evolving cultural force. At the same time, some ex-colonials emphasize nativism or nationalism, striving to reclaim and reinforce indigenous traditions to resist Western cultural dominance.

Feminist and Postcolonial Criticism share many concerns, as both address systems of oppression—patriarchy and colonialism—that marginalize and devalue individuals. Postcolonial women face double colonization, being oppressed both by colonialist ideology (due to race and culture) and patriarchal structures (due to gender). Their struggle for autonomy, representation, and equality highlights the intersectionality of race, gender, and colonial history, making their voices central to both postcolonial and feminist discourses.

Postcolonial Criticism and Literature – Key Terms

Colonialism – The political, economic, and cultural domination of one country over another, often involving settlement and exploitation.

Imperialism – A broader concept encompassing colonialism, referring to the expansion of an empire through military, economic, or cultural means.

Cultural Imperialism / Cultural Colonization – The dominance of one culture over another, often through economic influence, replacing local customs with those of the colonizers.

Othering – The process of dehumanizing the colonized, viewing them as inferior, uncivilized, or primitive.

Mimicry – The act of the colonized imitating the language, behavior, dress, and customs of the colonizers to gain acceptance.

Exile – The state of being displaced, either physically (living in a foreign land) or psychologically (feeling like an outsider in one’s own country).

Post-independence Disillusionment – The disappointment that follows independence, as newly freed nations struggle with governance and neocolonial influence.

Cultural Difference – The ways in which race, class, gender, religion, and other factors shape individual and collective identity.

Alienation – The feeling of being disconnected from one’s culture, homeland, or identity.

Unhomeliness – A sense of not belonging to any culture, feeling caught between two worlds.

Double Consciousness – The internal conflict of having two cultural identities, often forced to reconcile colonized and colonizer influences.

Hybridity – The blending of multiple cultural identities, often seen as a positive alternative to unhomeliness.

Double Colonization – The dual oppression of postcolonial women by both colonialism and patriarchy.

Canonical Counter-Discourse – The strategy of rewriting or reinterpreting colonial-era literature to expose its biases (e.g., Jean Rhys’ Wide Sargasso Sea as a response to Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre).

The Role of the Natural Environment – The significance of land, nature, and ecological destruction in postcolonial narratives.

Precolonial Continuity – The effort to reconnect with cultural traditions and histories that existed before colonization.

Self-Definition of Political Futures – The struggle for postcolonial nations to establish independent political identities.

Colonialist Literature – Literature that reinforces the ideologies of colonialism, depicting colonized people as inferior.

Anticolonialist Literature – Literature that challenges colonial narratives and gives voice to the colonized perspective.

Key Questions in Postcolonial Criticism

Colonial Oppression – How does the text represent political and cultural oppression, including control over language, communication, and knowledge?

Postcolonial Identity – How does the text explore issues of personal and cultural identity, including double consciousness and hybridity?

Anticolonialist Resistance – What does the text reveal about ideological, political, social, economic, or psychological resistance to colonial rule?

Othering and Cultural Perception – How does the text portray Othering, and how does it shape perceptions of different cultures and identities?

Cultural Difference – How does the text depict the influence of race, religion, class, gender, and cultural beliefs on individual and collective identity?

Response to Canonical Works – How does the text engage with and reinterpret colonialist literature, following Helen Tiffin’s concept of canonical counter-discourse?

Comparisons Across Postcolonial Literatures – What similarities exist among different postcolonial literatures, and how do they address shared experiences of colonialism?

Character and Land Relationships – How does the text depict relationships between dominant cultural figures, subalterns, and cultural outsiders, particularly in connection to the land they inhabit?

Colonialist Ideology in Western Canon – Does the text reinforce or challenge colonialist ideology through its portrayal of colonization or its silence on colonized peoples?