Showing posts with label Mahmud II. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Mahmud II. Show all posts

Saturday, June 14, 2025

Modernization in the Ottoman Empire: A New Beginning with Mahmud II

Sultan Mahmud II not only reformed the military; he transformed almost every aspect of Ottoman society, from politics to social life, from healthcare to education, from the arts to the bureaucracy. While dismantling traditional institutions one by one, he built modern structures influenced by European developments. The abolition of the Janissary marked the start of this massive transformation, which was not just military but also political and cultural. Mahmud did not simply try to catch up with the times; he redefined the central power of the state.

Sultan Mahmud II

Sultan Mahmud II wanted to weaken the local leaders and families who had strong control over parts of the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, the Greek Rebellion started, and Mehmed Ali Pasha, the governor of Egypt, helped the Sultan stop it. But Mehmed Ali Pasha then asked for more land and tax income as a reward. This put the Sultan in a difficult position. He had two choices: either make deals with local leaders and European powers or use the crisis to create a strong, centralized government with emergency powers.

But the Sultan’s problem was not only local leaders and rebellions. After the French Revolution in 1789, many European countries started building large armies made up of ordinary people. France began drafting many young men as soldiers, and other European countries copied this system. The Ottoman Empire also needed a strong infantry army like this.

Before, Sultan Selim III and Alemdar Mustafa Pasha tried to make army reforms but failed. Now Sultan Mahmud II faced the same challenge. He could either reform the existing Janissary corps or create a completely new army. After the Greek Rebellion was suppressed, new units called “Eşkinci” were formed inside the Janissaries. The Janissaries protested this and rebelled.

Sultan Mahmud II saw this rebellion as an opportunity. He used force to destroy the Janissary corps completely. This was not just a military change but also removed the biggest obstacle to central government power. With this, the Sultan took a big step toward building a stronger, more centralized empire.

Portrait of Sultan Mahmud II, given by Mustafa Reşid Pasha to King Louis-Philippe of France, now at the Musée de Versailles

Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye

After the Janissary Corps was officially abolished in 1826, Sultan Mahmud II created a new army called Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye. He chose Ağa Hüseyin Pasha, a loyal man from the old corps, as the commander of this new army. Other important officials were also assigned to help organize the new structure. The plan was to form an army of about 12,000 soldiers, divided into eight units. These soldiers were supposed to be trained using modern European military methods. However, the Ottoman Empire didn’t have many officers who knew these methods. So, the Sultan asked the governor of Egypt, Mehmed Ali Pasha, to send officers to help train the new army. But Mehmed Ali refused, because he thought this new army might become a rival to his own forces.

Since no help came from Egypt, the Sultan appointed Osman Ağa, a former officer from the Nizam-ı Cedid army. Although he was a cavalry officer and not very experienced in infantry training, he was the only available option.

The Sultan also chose Emin Ağa, who had served in the Nizam-ı Cedid and studied at the Enderun Palace School, to help train the soldiers. So, some experienced men from earlier military reforms joined the new army’s training efforts. Meanwhile in Istanbul, a former navy commander named Hüsrev Pasha started training a group of sailors in the French military style. He had earlier set up similar units while he was in Egypt. Later, Hüsrev Pasha came to Istanbul and told the Sultan that he was using the newest training methods from France. Sultan Mahmud II watched these training exercises at the Gülhane Pavilion and liked Hüsrev’s faster and more active style. He ordered this method to be used for the army.

Hüsrev Pasha, who had lost his position because of Mehmed Ali Pasha’s influence, later became the governor of Anatolia and then the commander of the army. Under his guidance, infantry training changed. For cavalry, an Italian officer named Calosso was hired. He tried to train the cavalry in the Hungarian hussar style, with new saddles and riding techniques.

But the Ottoman cavalry found it hard to adapt. They were used to sitting on horses with their legs crossed or pulled up, almost like sitting on the floor. The new style required them to sit with their legs down, which felt strange and uncomfortable. An English officer, George Keppel, said that the skilled old riders were gone, and the new ones were clumsy. Another English naval officer, Adolphus Slade, wrote that Calosso himself thought the changes were a mistake because they replaced effective traditional fighters with a small number of modern-style but less capable soldiers.

The Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment crossing the Galata Bridge painted by Fausto Zonaro in 1901.