Sultan Mahmud II not only reformed the military; he transformed almost every aspect of Ottoman society, from politics to social life, from healthcare to education, from the arts to the bureaucracy. While dismantling traditional institutions one by one, he built modern structures influenced by European developments. The abolition of the Janissary marked the start of this massive transformation, which was not just military but also political and cultural. Mahmud did not simply try to catch up with the times; he redefined the central power of the state.
Sultan Mahmud II
Sultan
Mahmud II wanted to weaken the local leaders and families who had strong
control over parts of the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, the Greek Rebellion started,
and Mehmed Ali Pasha, the governor of Egypt, helped the Sultan stop it. But
Mehmed Ali Pasha then asked for more land and tax income as a reward. This put
the Sultan in a difficult position. He had two choices: either make deals with
local leaders and European powers or use the crisis to create a strong,
centralized government with emergency powers.
But the
Sultan’s problem was not only local leaders and rebellions. After the French
Revolution in 1789, many European countries started building large armies made
up of ordinary people. France began drafting many young men as soldiers, and
other European countries copied this system. The Ottoman Empire also needed a
strong infantry army like this.
Before,
Sultan Selim III and Alemdar Mustafa Pasha tried to make army reforms but
failed. Now Sultan Mahmud II faced the same challenge. He could either reform
the existing Janissary corps or create a completely new army. After the Greek
Rebellion was suppressed, new units called “Eşkinci” were formed inside the
Janissaries. The Janissaries protested this and rebelled.
Sultan
Mahmud II saw this rebellion as an opportunity. He used force to destroy the
Janissary corps completely. This was not just a military change but also
removed the biggest obstacle to central government power. With this, the Sultan
took a big step toward building a stronger, more centralized empire.
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| Portrait of Sultan Mahmud II, given by Mustafa Reşid Pasha to King Louis-Philippe of France, now at the Musée de Versailles |
After the Janissary Corps
was officially abolished in 1826, Sultan Mahmud II created a new army called Asakir-i
Mansure-i Muhammediye. He chose Ağa Hüseyin Pasha, a loyal man from the old
corps, as the commander of this new army. Other important officials were also
assigned to help organize the new structure. The plan was to form an army of
about 12,000 soldiers, divided into eight units. These soldiers were supposed
to be trained using modern European military methods. However, the Ottoman
Empire didn’t have many officers who knew these methods. So, the Sultan asked
the governor of Egypt, Mehmed Ali Pasha, to send officers to help train the new
army. But Mehmed Ali refused, because he thought this new army might become a
rival to his own forces.
Since no help came from
Egypt, the Sultan appointed Osman Ağa, a former officer from the Nizam-ı Cedid
army. Although he was a cavalry officer and not very experienced in infantry
training, he was the only available option.
The Sultan also chose Emin
Ağa, who had served in the Nizam-ı Cedid and studied at the Enderun Palace
School, to help train the soldiers. So, some experienced men from earlier
military reforms joined the new army’s training efforts. Meanwhile in Istanbul,
a former navy commander named Hüsrev Pasha started training a group of sailors
in the French military style. He had earlier set up similar units while he was
in Egypt. Later, Hüsrev Pasha came to Istanbul and told the Sultan that he was
using the newest training methods from France. Sultan Mahmud II watched these
training exercises at the Gülhane Pavilion and liked Hüsrev’s faster and more
active style. He ordered this method to be used for the army.
Hüsrev Pasha, who had lost
his position because of Mehmed Ali Pasha’s influence, later became the governor
of Anatolia and then the commander of the army. Under his guidance, infantry
training changed. For cavalry, an Italian officer named Calosso was hired. He
tried to train the cavalry in the Hungarian hussar style, with new
saddles and riding techniques.
But the Ottoman cavalry
found it hard to adapt. They were used to sitting on horses with their legs
crossed or pulled up, almost like sitting on the floor. The new style required
them to sit with their legs down, which felt strange and uncomfortable. An
English officer, George Keppel, said that the skilled old riders were gone, and
the new ones were clumsy. Another English naval officer, Adolphus Slade, wrote
that Calosso himself thought the changes were a mistake because they replaced
effective traditional fighters with a small number of modern-style but less
capable soldiers.
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The Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment crossing the Galata Bridge painted by Fausto Zonaro in 1901.
