The Détente Era: Space Race, Technological Revolution, and Cultural Transformation

The period of Détente witnessed massive leaps that completely transformed the face of the world political arena, economics, technology, and culture.

 Economic Developments

As industrial growth rapidly increased global energy consumption, oil dethroned coal, leading to the creation of entirely new products, particularly in the chemical industry. Driven by these developments, the global economy surged, experiencing a period of unprecedented, rapid growth known historically as the “Glorious Thirty” (1945-1975). Parallel to economic prosperity and the development of technological infrastructure, massive strides were made in satellite technology. The most concrete example of this was television broadcasting taking on an international dimension, with the 1964 Tokyo Olympics being broadcast live to the entire world for the very first time.

Scientific and Technological Developments

The greatest arena of competition during this era was undoubtedly space. The United Nations laid the legal groundwork for the space race by resolving in 1961 that space and celestial bodies could not be claimed under the sovereignty of any state. In 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made history as the first human to travel to space aboard the “Vostok-1.” The US response was monumental: in 1969, American astronaut Neil Armstrong set foot on the Moon with the “Apollo-11” spacecraft, putting the US a step ahead in the space race.

Gagarin's Vostok 3KA capsule and an effigy of him on display at the RKK Energiya museum in 2010

Computing and communication technologies also experienced their golden age during this time. In 1969, ARPANET, considered the ancestor of today’s internet, was established in the US as an experimental network to facilitate communication among scientists. Initially connecting only universities, this network was opened for commercial use in 1991. With the introduction of the “Mosaic” web browser in 1992, the World Wide Web (WWW) boomed, turning the world into a global village. Meanwhile, the first personal computers were produced in 1970, and by 1978, the use of Apple computers in factories directly integrated computing into the industrial sector.

ARPANET logical map, March 1977

Other Key Scientific and Technological Milestones of the Era

1962: Telstar-1, the first communications satellite, was developed, and the first industrial robot was invented.

1963: Valentina Tereshkova became the first female cosmonaut sent into space.

1965: Alexei Leonov performed the first spacewalk. 

1967: Christiaan Barnard performed the first human heart transplant. The same year, the “Hawker Harrier,” the first vertical take-off aircraft, was invented.

1968: The first piloted flight around the Moon took place.

1972: The first videocassettes and disks were invented.

1975: The Hepatitis B vaccine was discovered.

1977: The neutron bomb was produced.

1978: The first medical imaging via MRI, revolutionizing medicine, was performed.

1979: The compact disc (CD) and the PC (home computer) were produced.

Cultural and Sporting Developments

In the music world, while the 1950s phenomenon of “Rock and Roll” maintained its influence, the “Heavy Metal” genre was born during this era. The legendary band The Rolling Stones, formed in London in 1962, left an indelible mark on the period.

In the realm of sports, the Olympic Games between 1960 and 1980 were heavily dominated by the USA, the USSR, Japan, and East Germany in the medal standings, while Türkiye, unfortunately, struggled to achieve its desired success in the international arena. In football, the FIFA World Cup was won successively by Brazil (1962), England (1966), Brazil (1970), West Germany (1974), and Argentina (1978). In fact, by winning the cup for a third time in 1970, Brazil earned the right to keep the Jules Rimet Trophy permanently in their museum, per tournament rules.

In European football, UEFA began organizing the European Nations’ Cup (UEFA European Championship) starting in 1960. Although Türkiye failed to reach the finals in these championships, it consistently participated in the Mediterranean Games (held since 1951) and successfully hosted the VI. Mediterranean Games in İzmir in 1971. In both the Basketball (FIBA) and Volleyball (FIVB) World Championships, the wind blew strongly in favour of the Eastern Bloc, with the USSR standing out as the most successful nation across both categories.

We have left behind a massive Cold War and Détente period with all its bitter, sweet, and harsh historical realities. Now, we are stepping into a brand new, much faster era on the stage of history that is much closer to our present day: The Globalizing World.

In this new era, we will witness the collapse of the Soviet Union, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the blurring of borders, the new unipolar world order, and how technology transformed the world into a massive “global village.” I am completely ready for this dynamic unit where political maps were redrawn, and economic crises and new-generation wars took on entirely different forms.

OPEC, the Ba'ath Party, and the Iran-Iraq War: The Middle East in Flames

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established following a conference in Baghdad from September 9-14, 1960, spearheaded by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and Venezuela. The primary goal was to raise low oil prices and protect the rights of producing nations through cooperation. However, the true turning point for the organization was the Arab-Israeli Wars. Failing to achieve their goals after the 1967 conflicts, the Arab states decided to use oil as a weapon against the West, monopolizing prices.

The 1973 Oil Crisis: Following the 1973 Yom Kippur War, OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries) imposed an embargo on Western countries supporting Israel and cut production. The decision to reduce oil production by 5% each month until Israel withdrew from the occupied territories caused prices to quadruple, sending a massive economic shockwave across the globe.

In response, Western countries, led by the US, established the International Energy Agency (IEA) in 1974 to secure energy supplies. By the 1980s, as the West adapted its industries to the new conditions, OPEC’s influence began to wane. Ultimately, the heaviest toll of this crisis, intended to punish the West, was sadly paid by impoverished and developing Muslim nations left without assistance.

Regime Change in Iraq and the Ba’ath Party

Iraq transitioned to a republic following a military intervention in 1958, but the real political breaking point occurred on July 17, 1968, when the Ba’ath Party seized full control in a bloodless coup. Meaning “resurrection” in Arabic, the Ba’ath Party was founded in Damascus in 1940, aiming to establish a socialist, united, and secular Arab state in the Middle East. Amid internal disputes following the coup, a group of officers led by Saddam Hussein came to prominence and took over the government. During this period, Iraq’s growing closeness with the Soviet Union and Iran’s desire to solely dominate the Persian Gulf significantly raised tensions between the two countries.

The 1975 Algiers Agreement: This escalating tension was temporarily resolved through an agreement mediated by Algeria, establishing the deepest point of the Shatt al-Arab waterway as the border and briefly calming the waters.

Michel Aflaq (left) and Salah al-Din Bitar (right) with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser (centre) in 1958. The three leaders were prime advocates for a pan-Arab union

Regime Change in Iran (The 1979 Islamic Revolution)

The “White Revolution” reforms initiated in 1962 by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who came to power in 1953, created massive social unrest in Iran. While steps like women’s suffrage angered the clergy (ulema), poorly planned industrialization drove millions of landless peasants into the cities. When economic hardship and political suppression evolved into a massive popular uprising led by the ulema, nationwide strikes paralyzed the country, forcing the Shah to flee in early 1979. Subsequently, Ayatollah Khomeini, who had been exiled to France for opposing the reforms, returned to the country with immense popular support.

Declaration of the Islamic Republic and the Hostage Crisis: On February 11, 1979, the Shah's regime collapsed completely, and the Islamic Republic of Iran was established under Khomeini's religious leadership. The new administration's uncompromising stance against the US and the hostage crisis at the US Embassy in Tehran irreparably severed relations between the two nations.

Arrival of Khomeini on 1 February 1979, escorted by an Air France pilot.

The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)

The revolution in Iran completely upended the regional balance of power within the tense atmosphere of the Cold War. Khomeini's rise to power alarmed Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, whose country had a large Shia majority. When Saddam unilaterally annulled the 1975 Algiers Agreement with dreams of capturing Iran’s Arab-majority Khuzestan region, war broke out on September 22, 1980. Although Iraq seemed to have the upper hand initially, the conflict quickly devolved into a bloody and devastating war of attrition. Fearing the war would spread, regional countries formed the Gulf Cooperation Council in 1981.

The Irangate Scandal (1986): This was the most striking diplomatic crisis of the war. It was revealed that the US (particularly the Reagan administration) had secretly sold weapons to Iran via Israel to serve its national interests, sparking a massive international scandal.

The Devastating Aftermath of the War: Lasting eight full years, the war cost approximately 1 million lives and did not shift the borders by a single inch. However, the economies of both nations collapsed entirely. Driven into a deep swamp of debt, Iraq's desperate move to invade Kuwait in 1990 led to Saddam Hussein’s total international isolation and paved the way for his ultimate downfall.

With this, we leave behind a heavy block full of regime wars that cost millions of lives and energy crises that shook global balances, affecting the fate of the Middle East.

We steer our course slightly away from the conflicts and turn to a new era where the sharp ice of the Cold War began to melt, and the world took on a different complexion. Our new topic is: Developments in the World During the Détente Period. In this section, we will likely explore the space race, technological leaps, the generation of '68, and the socio-cultural changes of the era.

Kashmir, Afghanistan, and the Non-Aligned Movement: Cold War Beyond the Superpowers

We will begin our new blog with the Kashmir Issue and then cover the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Finally, we will conclude this block by touching upon the Non-Aligned Movement, thereby wrapping up the Détente period in general terms.

The Kashmir Issue (Pakistan & India)

In 1947, when Pakistan and India declared their independence, the people of Kashmir used their electoral rights, applied according to the treaty, in favour of Muslim Pakistan. However, just like other Muslim regions in the Indian subcontinent that were supposed to join Pakistan, this unification could not be realized because the ruler of Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh, handed the country over to India for money and fled to England.

Kashmir was a region located at the intersection of Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and China, possessing highly fertile lands. Following Pakistan’s attempt to annex the region, conflicts broke out between India and Pakistan for the first time in 1948. With the intervention of the United Nations, it was decided to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir, and a ceasefire was achieved between the two countries. Although conflicts continued sporadically in the following period, the Tashkent Declaration was signed between Pakistan and India through the initiatives of the Soviet Union, and the parties agreed to resolve their disputes peacefully.

The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

After the overthrow of King Daoud in Afghanistan, the people rebelled against the policies of the People's Party that came to power, and aid was requested from the USSR. Upon this request, a large number of Soviet experts and soldiers arrived in Afghanistan, and the USSR effectively invaded the country on December 27, 1979. The Afghan groups fighting against the Soviet invasion were called “Mujahideen.” During the invasion, President Hafizullah Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal. This Soviet invasion caused many Afghans to take refuge in Pakistan and Iran, leading to a massive refugee crisis.

In response to this Soviet initiative, the US refused to ratify the SALT II Treaty and halted its grain exports to the country on January 5, 1980. Furthermore, in reaction to the Soviet invasion, the US and nearly 70 other countries did not participate in the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow. As a result of negotiations that began in 1982 under UN supervision among Afghanistan, Pakistan, the US, and the USSR, an agreement was signed in Geneva on April 14, 1988; however, due to internal conflicts, stability could not be achieved in Afghanistan.

Mujahideen praying in Shultan Valley, 1987

The Non-Aligned Movement

One of the most significant developments that emerged as a new power factor in the international arena from the 1960s onwards was the appearance of a new grouping of states under the name of “Non-Alignment,” standing entirely outside the East and West blocs.

Pioneers and Origins: India, Yugoslavia, and Egypt, countries that gained their independence and began to make their voices heard during the Korean War era, were instrumental in the emergence of this movement. The spark and starting point of the Non-Aligned Movement was the Asian-African (Bandung) Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia, in April 1955.

The Goal of the Bandung Conference: The aim was to ensure unity and solidarity among the newly independent African and Asian countries to protect their existence against two massive nuclear powers like the US and the USSR. However, the 24 states attending the conference were quite “heterogeneous” in terms of their political systems and foreign policies. For instance, Türkiye was at the table as a NATO member, while the People's Republic of China acted almost as a representative of the USSR.

Formalization and the Belgrade Conference: The Non-Aligned Movement, which fundamentally advocated not being affiliated with any bloc or military alliance, had its first official organization in 1961 through the initiatives of Yugoslav leader Tito and Egyptian President Nasser. At the conference held in Belgrade in September 1961 with the participation of 25 neutral countries, a 25-point declaration was published, and a clear call for peace was made to both the US and Soviet Russia.

Key Resolutions of the Belgrade Declaration:

• Absolute opposition to all forms of colonialism.
• Condemnation of racial discrimination (Apartheid) in the Republic of South Africa.
• Recognition of all legitimate rights of the Palestinian-Arab people.
• The necessity of dismantling foreign military bases in other countries.
• The prohibition of nuclear weapons and the need for general disarmament.

Jawaharlal Nehru, Barrister-at-Law

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)

Born in 1889, Nehru completed his education in England and returned to India, where he became the president of the political party known as the “Indian National Congress.” He was arrested in 1942 during the “Quit India!” protests organized against British rule. Remaining imprisoned until the end of World War II, Nehru became the first Prime Minister of independent India, which was established in 1947. He served in this esteemed position until his death in 1964.

Up to this point, we have examined the relations between America, the Soviets, and China; now we are turning our course to the Middle East. Our upcoming blog will be a long and intensive one. In this section, we will cover the Arab-Israeli Wars that shaped the Middle East, namely the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1973 Arab-Israeli War (Yom Kippur). Following that, we will discuss the Camp David Accords and the developing Egypt-Israel relations around this axis, and finally, we will complete this long blog with the establishment of the Islamic Conference.

The U-2 Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis, and Vietnam: Cold War at Its Hottest

On May 16, 1960, it was decided that a Summit Conference would be held in Paris among America, the Soviet Union, Britain, France, and West Germany. However, this conference could not take place. Just shortly before the planned summit, on May 5, 1960, Soviet leader Khrushchev announced that an American U-2 spy plane had been shot down within Soviet borders. This incident, which went down in history as the U-2 Crisis, led to the cancellation of the conference and once again negatively affected the relations between the superpowers.

A Lockheed U-2 in flight

There is a very clear conclusion we must draw from this: In diplomacy, two plus two definitely does not equal four. While peace is discussed at the table, different dynamics always continue to operate in the background. Perhaps such crises experienced in the past have played a massive role in the extensive development of today's modern intelligence networks.

As a result of the space race that emerged between America and the Soviets, America began producing U-2 spy planes to gather intelligence. On May 1, 1960, one of these U-2 planes took off from the İncirlik Base in Adana (Türkiye) and entered Soviet territory, but was shot down by the Soviets as it descended. In fact, when we think about it in the context of intelligence wars, we can say that this and similar incidents are perhaps still continuing today in different forms.

John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) and Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) in Vienna, Austria in May 1961

The Cuban Missile Crisis

After Fidel Castro took power in 1959, Cuba’s relations with the Soviets strengthened in the years 1960-1961. Meanwhile, starting in 1962, the Soviets began placing missiles in Cuba without the rest of the world knowing. Look at this: people who wanted to save their own country and its freedom suddenly became almost like puppets of the Soviets, starting to place missiles in their country with the range to strike America. I leave the judgment to you. By the way, do not misunderstand, I am not defending America, but these are the historical facts.

In his speech on October 22, 1962, US President Kennedy announced that the Soviets had secretly placed nuclear missiles on Cuban soil. Upon this, the US Navy took action and blockaded Cuba. This situation brought the two superpowers to the brink of a nuclear war. However, the immense danger such a war would unleash, and the realization by the US and Soviet Russia that they had reached a balance in political and military fields, prevented a hot conflict. In exchange for removing the missiles in Cuba, the Soviets demanded that America remove its Jupiter missiles located in Türkiye. America accepted this proposal, and the crisis subsided. Following this massive crisis, the famous “Red Telephone” hotline was established between Soviet Russia and America on June 20, 1963, specifically to prevent misunderstandings during periods of crisis.

American POWs recently released from North Vietnamese prison camps, 1973

The Vietnam War

For the full background on Vietnam's colonial history and the Indochina War, see our earlier post: The End of Empires: Indian Independence, Vietnam, and the African Awakening

An important symbol of resistance that we probably all know, which has been the subject of movies, and where America failed. Following the end of the Japanese occupation after World War II, a war broke out between communists and nationalists in Vietnam, a former French colony. When France withdrew from Vietnam, with the involvement of the United Nations, the region was divided into North and South, with the 17th parallel accepted as the border. The war began with the communists in the North attacking the South and gained an international dimension with America's intervention. As North Vietnamese troops entered the south, America deployed soldiers to the region; however, this development was seen as baseless and meaningless by the American public, drawing significant backlash.

Following talks in Paris, the Vietnam Peace Accords were signed in January 1973. The political rapprochement of the Soviets and China with America played a significant role in the signing of this treaty. Although the Vietnam War initially seemed likely to improve China-Soviet relations, it actually heightened the power struggle within the communist bloc and caused new disputes during the détente period. Ultimately, America failed in its strategy to keep Vietnam divided, and North and South Vietnam united in 1975 to become the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

The Backdrop of the War and Muhammad Ali's Historic Stance

Historical Retrospective • Special Feature

On the political front of the war, the US began peace talks with North Vietnam in Paris in 1968, and the new US President Richard Nixon decided to withdraw American troops from Vietnam. Interestingly, however, while deciding to withdraw, the US military intensified its attacks in order to force Vietnam to the peace table.

This bloody and seemingly senseless war created massive rifts within American society as well. One of the greatest symbols of this was Muhammad Ali (1942-2016), one of the most famous boxers of all time. Despite being drafted into the Vietnam War, the legendary boxer refused to fight and spoke those historic words etched in memory:

"I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong." (The Viet Cong never did me any wrong that I should fight them.)

Muhammad Ali's honorable and anti-war stance caused him to pay a heavy price. He was stripped of his world championship title, his boxing license was revoked, and he was banned from participating in official matches for 3 years. Enduring all of this and later regaining his license to take the boxing world by storm once again, Muhammad Ali passed away on June 3, 2016.

The Détente Era: Ping-Pong Diplomacy, SALT, and the Helsinki Accords

We have covered World War I, World War II, and left the Cold War behind; we are now slowly approaching the present day. We will begin this block with the meaning, origins, and emergence of the Détente period. After briefly discussing the effects of this era, we will touch upon America's visit to Beijing, namely Ping-Pong Diplomacy, followed by the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Finally, we will complete this section with the Helsinki Final Act.

The Détente period refers to a historical era during the Cold War when conflict and tension in East-West relations decreased. We can also consider this period as a result of contemporary developments, often referred to as the “age of negotiations.” After the Cuban Missile Crisis, the US and the Soviets stepping back from the brink of a nuclear war pushed both states to pursue a tension-reducing and softer policy. Accordingly, after the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, both states stepped back from the brink and gradually shifted toward a softer policy, with the SALT I talks in 1969 widely accepted as the actual beginning of the Détente period. In this context, the transition from conventional weapons to nuclear weapons was a significant factor in the emergence of this policy. (All kinds of classic weapons used by land, sea, and air forces, excluding nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, are referred to as conventional weapons.)

Leonid Brezhnev (left), Viktor Sukhodrev (center), and Richard Nixon (right) during Brezhnev's 1973 visit to Washington

Now we move on to America’s visit to Beijing, namely Ping-Pong Diplomacy. China’s foreign policy progressed along the lines of cooperating with Third World countries. As a matter of fact, China was under the threat of America in the south, and the Soviets in the north and northwest. America wanted to determine its security strategy against the increasing Soviet threat and use China against Soviet Russia. The visit by President Nixon’s National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger to China in 1971 was the first step in the normalization of relations between the two countries. President Nixon’s visit between February 21-28, 1972, took place in an environment where there were no diplomatic relations between the two countries.

The name “Ping-Pong Diplomacy” comes from an unexpected moment: in April 1971, an American table tennis player accidentally boarded the Chinese team’s bus at the World Table Tennis Championships in Japan. This small, accidental encounter opened the door to an invitation, and ultimately, to Nixon’s historic visit to Beijing.

In 1963, the “Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty” was signed in Moscow among America, the Soviet Union, and Britain. However, since the states actually just wanted to buy time, they continued their arms race in the nuclear field without slowing down even after this treaty. The SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), which began in Helsinki in 1969, was an important milestone in limiting nuclear weapons. In these talks, it was decided to limit only defensive missiles. With this step, the year 1969 is widely accepted as the actual beginning of the Détente period. Finally, the SALT II Treaty was signed between the US and the USSR in 1979. However, because the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in the same year, the US Congress did not ratify this treaty, and it remained solely on paper.

The front page of the Helsinki Accords

We are now at the Helsinki Final Act section. Upon entering the détente process in relations between the blocs, Eastern Bloc countries proposed convening a conference to strengthen security and cooperation in Europe. Following the SALT I Treaty, all European states, along with the US and Canada, gathered in Helsinki for the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). As a result of long negotiations, the final document encompassing fundamental peace and cooperation in international relations, namely the Helsinki Final Act, was signed on August 1, 1975. This document included vital issues such as refraining from the use of force, respect for sovereignty, peaceful settlement of disputes, cooperation among states, non-intervention in internal affairs, and respect for human rights.

With this, we have introduced the Détente period and summarized the developments centered around the US and the Soviets. In the second part, meaning our next block, we will transition to the conflicts of the Détente period. As we cover the final phases of the nuclear arms race and the end of the Cold War, we will also discuss the economic developments, socio-cultural events, and all the other dynamics of the Cold War era.

Balkan Alliance, Baghdad Pact, and the Syrian Crisis: Turkey at the Heart of Cold War Diplomacy

In this new section, we will transition along that strategic line stretching from the Balkans to the Middle East. We will focus on regional developments that affected our country's security and foreign policy, such as the Balkan Alliance, the Baghdad Pact, and the Syrian Crisis. After closing this important file, we will set sail for brand-new topics.

Balkan Alliance

The first critical step in this new phase stretching from the Balkans to the Middle East is the Balkan Alliance, or the Balkan Pact, dated August 9, 1954. This alliance was formed when Yugoslavia, the only communist state outside of Soviet control, came together with Türkiye and Greece, whose entries into NATO were already guaranteed. The main goal was to prevent the USSR from expanding into the Balkans and the Mediterranean.

Member Countries of the Balkan Alliance

The rapprochement among the three countries, which began towards the end of 1951, became official with the “Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation” signed in Ankara on February 28, 1953. Under this agreement, the parties decided to consult each other on matters of common interest and to hold meetings at the foreign minister level at least once a year. As a result of these ongoing meetings, the Bled Agreement was signed on August 9, 1954, transforming the alliance fully into a military pact.

In fact, any attack directed at one of them would be considered an attack against all, and all necessary measures, including military force, would be taken. However, things did not go as smoothly as they appeared on paper. From the very first days, disagreements between Turkey and Yugoslavia emerged, and Yugoslavia's interest in the pact began to wane as it mended its relations with the Soviets after 1955. On top of that, when the Cyprus Issue erupted between Turkey and Greece, the positive atmosphere created by the pact completely faded away. Managing to exist on paper until 1960, the pact officially came to an end and became history in June 1960.

Member Countries of the Baghdad Pact

Another major development that fundamentally shook the balance in the Middle East was the Baghdad Pact, established on February 24, 1955. Seeing the decline of French and British influence in the region, a new alliance idea emerged to prevent Soviet Russia from infiltrating the Middle East. Although this idea originally came from the US, it was Türkiye that put it into action, and the pact was initially signed between Türkiye and Iraq. The pact quickly expanded with the participation of the UK, Pakistan, and Iran, but unfortunately, it failed to create the expected unifying effect in the Arab world.

On the contrary, Arab countries other than Iraq strongly opposed the pact, and the Middle East was literally split into three camps: those who joined, those who strongly opposed it (led by Egypt), and those who remained neutral. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, who did not want to lose the leadership of the Middle East to Türkiye and dreamed of uniting the Arab world under his own roof, reacted strongly to this situation. Nasser’s increasing anti-Western sentiment and his rapprochement with the Soviets directly paved the way for the Suez Crisis and ironically made the USSR's job in the region much easier. The real blow that changed the fate of the pact came from Iraq, where the monarchy was overthrown in 1958; the new administration officially announced its withdrawal from the pact on March 24, 1959.

With Iraq’s departure, the headquarters of the organization was immediately moved to Ankara, and its name was changed to CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) on August 18, 1959. In fact, CENTO’s first meeting was held in Washington in October 1959. Although initially established as a military defence alliance, the organization gradually shifted its focus to economic, cultural, and technical cooperation among its members. However, this unity reached the point of collapse when Pakistan and Iran left on March 12, 1979. The very next day, with Türkiye announcing that it respected these withdrawal decisions and that CENTO had effectively lost its function in the region, this alliance, which had marked an era, came to a de facto, if not legal, end.

Syrian scouts on the parade at the year of the crisis

Another major flashpoint in the Middle East was the Syrian Crisis that erupted in 1957. Syria, which had gained its independence from France prior to World War II, was heavily shaken by successive government coups in the 1950s. Amidst this political instability, Syria’s rapprochement with the Soviet Union, driven by Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, disturbed its neighbours. Particularly, when Syria signed an aid agreement with the USSR in 1956, it was met with fierce backlash from Türkiye, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. These countries had come to firmly believe that Syria was turning into a mere “Moscow Satellite.” 

The situation grew so tense that US President Eisenhower sent a message to Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, guaranteeing immediate American weapons aid if Türkiye, Iraq, and Jordan were forced to launch a military operation in response to a potential Syrian attack. Following this assurance, Türkiye’s decision to mass troops on the Syrian border and conduct military exercises brought relations between the two countries to the breaking point.

While the USSR escalated its counter-pressure during this critical period, the region ultimately stepped back from the brink of war. The crisis was gradually resolved thanks to the unwavering support of the US for Türkiye, Saudi Arabia’s mediation between the two nations, and Jordan’s King Hussein softening his stance toward Syria. Another crucial factor in ending the crisis was the historic agreement signed between Syria and Egypt on September 14, 1957. 

The two states decided to form a union under the name of the “United Arab Republic” starting from February 1, 1958. However, this political marriage, which made a massive impact in the Arab world, did not last long; their ties weakened over time, and the union officially ended with a government coup staged by conservative military officers in Syria in 1961.

We are finally putting aside the political maps, the never-ending border conflicts, the secret treaties, and the threats of nuclear war. As we close our Cold War file, we turn our course to perhaps the most fascinating, transformative, and impactful front of this era on our daily lives: Socio-cultural and scientific developments.

The End of Empires: Indian Independence, Vietnam, and the African Awakening

In a new section, we will look at the Indian independence movement and the Pakistan issue, which perhaps we are all somewhat familiar with. Muhammad Ali Jinnah's role in this process is highly important; he is the founder and the first Governor-General of independent Pakistan. With Britain's withdrawal from the region in 1947, the subcontinent was divided into two separate states: India and Pakistan.

Next, we move on to Vietnam. After France withdrew in 1954, Vietnam was divided into two. The US military intervention to support the South sparked a long and exhausting war. Following years of conflict, the US was forced to withdraw from the region, and Vietnam was ultimately unified.

Finally, we will briefly explain the events in Africa and conclude our article. After World War II, colonies in Africa rapidly began to gain their independence. To increase solidarity among themselves and act jointly against foreign interventions, these newly independent African states established the Organization of African Unity in 1963.

Gandhi leading his followers on the Salt March to abolish the British salt laws

Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Indian Independence Movement, initially adopted a peaceful philosophy of independence and resistance for the civil rights of the Indian community in South Africa. After returning to India from Africa, he organized poor farmers and labourers to protest against oppressive taxation policies and widespread discrimination. By assuming the leadership of the Indian National Congress, he led nationwide campaigns aimed at reducing poverty, liberating women, fostering brotherhood among different religious and ethnic groups, ending caste and untouchability discrimination, achieving economic self-sufficiency, and most importantly, attaining “Swaraj”, the liberation of India from foreign domination. Gandhi spearheaded his country's rebellion against Britain with his famous 400-kilometer “Gandhi Salt March” in 1930 against the British Salt Tax, and in 1942, he openly called on the British to leave India. Ultimately, having emerged quite exhausted from World War II, Britain could no longer resist the developments in the region and was forced to recognize India’s independence on August 14, 1947.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Mahatma Gandhi

The name “Pakistan” was actually first proposed in 1940 by Muslim students studying in England, and until 1940, the Muslim population of the subcontinent shared the same independence struggle as India. The turning point came at the Lahore Congress, where Jinnah led the decision to establish a separate Muslim state. However, the turning point occurred on March 23, 1940, at the Muslim League Congress held in Lahore under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. At this congress, the decision was made to partition India between Muslims and non-Muslims and to establish a completely separate State of Pakistan. The chief architect of this process and the leader of the Muslim Nationalist Movement, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, became the founder and the first governor-general (head of state) of Pakistan when the country gained its independence on August 14, 1947. Even after independence, Jinnah fought tirelessly for Pakistan's rights against India, particularly during the Kashmir Dispute, until he passed away on September 11, 1948.

American Huey helicopters inserting South Vietnamese ARVN troops, 1970

Let’s move on to Vietnam, the unhealing wound of Asia. In Vietnam, which became a French colony in the 19th century, France’s severe economic exploitation and political oppression naturally sparked a strong national resistance movement. The communists, who formed the strongest wing of this resistance, gained momentum in the 1930s and established the Vietnam Independence League, known as the Viet Minh, in 1941. When Japan, which had occupied the country during World War II, surrendered in 1945, Viet Minh forces seized power in Hanoi, and their leader Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam’s independence. However, France, unwilling to let go of its colony, managed to suppress this national movement in the south but attempted to re-establish its colonial regime in the north. This sparked the bloody Indochina Wars that lasted from 1946 to 1954. The war ultimately ended when France suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Finally, under the decisions of the Geneva Accords signed on July 21, 1954, the country was temporarily divided into two separate states along the 17th Parallel: the communist-controlled Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north and the Republic of Vietnam in the south.

Troops of the King's African Rifles on watch for Mau Mau rebels

Finally, we turn our attention to Africa. The devastating impacts of World War II shook colonial powers like Germany, Belgium, Portugal, and the Netherlands, alongside Britain and France. Meanwhile, rising economic strength and the strengthening of nationalism in African states began to bring an end to colonialism on the continent. The first bold step on this path was taken by Ghana, which gained its independence from Britain in 1957, and was quickly followed by Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Uganda, and Tanganyika.

In Kenya, things were a bit harsher; the rebellion launched by the “Mau Mau” secret society against Britain in 1952 culminated in independence in 1963. Moving on to the French front, the largest and bloodiest independence struggle occurred in Algeria. France had used Algeria as a resistance base during World War II in 1942, but when the war ended, they responded to the Algerians’ demands for independence or equal rights in return for their sacrifices with severe backlash and massacres. Even though France declared it “French territory” rather than a colony in 1948 to the outside world, they continued to rule it as a colony and denied the Algerian people equal rights.

Consequently, a massive armed struggle began in 1954 as the public organized under the leadership of the National Liberation Front and the Algerian National Movement. Although France recognized the independence of Morocco and Tunisia in 1956 just to hold onto Algeria, these two newly freed countries provided support to the Algerian resistance. Ultimately, the struggle succeeded, and independence was achieved with the signing of the Evian Accords in 1962, establishing the Democratic People's Republic of Algeria. While all this was happening in the north, foreign rule in Libya, which had been under Italian control since 1911, ended in 1951 with the help of the Allied powers. The Kingdom of Libya was formed, and it quickly joined the Arab League in 1953 and the UN in 1955.

OAU during its foundation

Organization of African Unity

The countries that gained their independence in Africa chose not to take part in any bloc in the polarized world of the Cold War. Instead, to collectively ensure economic development, they established the Organization of African Unity (OAU) on May 25, 1963, with its headquarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The primary goals of this organization, which had 32 founding members, were to support the independence of African countries, to ensure unity and solidarity by preventing conflicts on the continent, and to improve international relations. Thus, the Africa file was closed with a sense of continental awakening and solidarity.

Thus, we have completed the great awakening, division, and independence processes in Asia and Africa under the shadow of the Cold War. As we conclude these historical events that rewrote the destinies of continents here, we are already starting our preparations for the next chapter. In our next article, we will turn our course back to our immediate geography and discuss those critical developments that occurred right around our borders and directly affected our history: the Balkan Alliance, the Syrian Crisis, and the Saadabad Pact.