The Beginning of the Cold War: Superpowers, Nuclear Fear, and a Divided Europe

While the wreckage of World War II had not yet been cleared, two new giants were rising on the world stage: the United States and the Soviet Union. The emergence of these two nations as superpowers marked the beginning of that long and tense era known as the “Cold War.” (This historic term was first used in 1947 by the American economist and statesman Bernard Baruch).

The primary critical developments that shaped international politics and the fate of the world during this new era were:

The Collapse of Europe: The fact that Europe and its established states, which had been the centre of the traditional balance of power and politics for centuries, emerged from the war with massive devastation, practically in ruins.

The New Superpowers: The filling of this massive political vacuum by the USA and the Soviet Union, who emerged from the war victorious and much stronger, claiming the status of “superpowers.”

The Shadow of Nuclear Weapons: Undoubtedly, the most defining element of this era was the development of nuclear weapons. This terrifying invention continues to directly shape both era and modern international crises. Just as we see today in the ongoing tensions between the US and Iran or in modern warfare strategies, nuclear deterrence is the greatest diplomatic weapon inherited from the Cold War.

With Europe withdrawing from the stage of world politics after World War II, the international order took on a sharply bipolar nature centred around the USA and the Soviet Union. One of the first concrete steps of this polarization was the secret bargain that went down in history as the Percentages Agreement, which took place in Moscow in October 1944. Aimed at definitively establishing spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, this agreement saw British Prime Minister Churchill and Soviet Leader Stalin determine their dominance over Eastern European countries by dividing them into percentages on a simple scrap of paper.

According to this, the fate of entire nations was divided by these ruthless ratios:

·         Romania: 90% USSR, 10% UK

·         Greece: 90% UK (with the US), 10% USSR

·         Yugoslavia: 50% USSR, 50% UK

·         Hungary: 50% USSR, 50% UK (Soviet ratio was later increased)

·         Bulgaria: 75% USSR, 25% UK (Soviet ratio was later increased)

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Leader Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin
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The Berlin Crisis and the Baruch Plan

The first major and volatile crisis of the Cold War erupted in the heart of Germany, the country that suffered the heaviest wounds of the war. Following World War II, just like the rest of Germany, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupation zones by the victorious powers (the US, UK, France, and the USSR). However, the Soviet Union’s aggressive attempt to push Western powers completely out of its occupation zone and its deliberate prevention of German reunification severed all ties. When a compromise proved impossible, the US, UK, and France made a swift move to merge their respective occupation zones, laying the foundations for West Germany (and West Berlin). This situation triggered the historic “Berlin Crisis,” bringing the world to the brink of a new war.

In response to the Soviet Union’s ruthless 1948 Berlin Blockade, which cut off all land and rail routes to force Western powers out of the city, the US and UK launched the Berlin Airlift, one of the most legendary maneuvers of the Cold War. Wanting to save the city without triggering a hot conflict, Allied planes performed an unprecedented logistical miracle by flying day and night for nearly a year to airdrop thousands of tons of food, coal, and medical supplies into West Berlin. Faced with the West's unwavering resolve, the Soviets were forced to lift the blockade in May 1949, and this humanitarian operation went down in memory as one of the greatest psychological victories of the free world against communism.

Nuclear Crisis

The US submitted a proposal to the UN known as the “Baruch Plan” for the control of the atomic bomb, a weapon it had used at the end of WWII to prove its ultimate power to the world. This plan envisioned the creation of an international authority with unlimited inspection powers over nations to monitor the development and use of atomic energy. The US even demanded an alteration of the famous “veto” system in the UN Security Council to ensure that violators of the agreement could not block their own punishment.

However, the Soviet Union categorically rejected this plan. The Stalin administration harboured a highly justified fear: if this plan were implemented, the US would remain the sole “monopoly” capable of manufacturing nuclear weapons, and America, which already heavily dominated the UN, would completely manipulate this newly established atomic commission for its own interests. This mistrust between the US, which was unwilling to share its nuclear secrets, and the Soviets, who rejected this inspection plan, pushed the tension between the two superpowers to its peak, officially igniting the terrifying global nuclear arms race.

The Construction of the Eastern Bloc and the First Cracks

As Europe was divided in two, the fate of the countries behind the “Iron Curtain” had already been sealed. Thanks to the power vacuum created by the war and the military presence of the Red Army, Marxist-Leninist parties rapidly seized political power in countries like Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. The greatest share in the establishment of communist regimes in these countries undoubtedly belonged to Soviet tanks.

However, not all of the Eastern Bloc was under the absolute control of the Soviets. Two countries stepped outside this rule and drew their own destinies: Yugoslavia and Albania.

·        Yugoslavia: Not owing its power to Soviet armies and having driven out the Nazis with its own strong partisan resistance, Yugoslavia (under the leadership of Tito) exhibited an independent communist movement from the very beginning and refused to fall into the Soviet orbit.

·       Albania: Similarly, the National Liberation Front led by Enver Hoxha seized power by its own strength on November 29, 1944. Initially allied with the Soviets, Albania eventually opposed this hegemony and completely broke away from the Soviet Union in 1961.

The other Eastern European countries, apart from these two exceptions, faced direct Soviet intervention (such as tanks rolling into the streets) at the slightest attempt at independence.

Up to this point, we have talked about what the concept of the Cold War means, the general characteristics of the era, the post-war devastation, and how that famous bipolar world (US-USSR) was separated by sharp lines. In other words, we have made quite a “hot” and solid entry into that tense and long Cold War era!

Now, we are moving on to the First Phase of this massive period (1947-1950s). But don't worry; without getting bogged down in details and endless diplomatic crises, we will continue on our way by briefly touching only upon those most critical turning points that changed the fate of the world.

From Casablanca to Potsdam: The Conferences That Shaped the Post-War (part ıv)

As millions of soldiers fought on the front lines, the true fate of the world was being determined at those tense diplomatic tables stretching from Casablanca to Yalta and from Tehran to Potsdam. If you are ready, we are stepping behind the scenes of those historic conferences where the seeds of peace (and the ensuing silent Cold War) were sown.

Casablanca Conference, January 14-24, 1943.

Casablanca Conference (January 1943)

The leaders of the US and Britain announced to the world that the war would only end with the “unconditional surrender” of Germany, Italy, and Japan. This uncompromising decision would later be criticized for prolonging the war. It was also decided to attack Italy (Sicily) to relieve pressure on the Soviets and to make preparations to draw Turkey into the war.

Washington and Quebec Conferences (May - August 1943)

The location of the second front was a massive point of contention. Although British Prime Minister Churchill insisted on opening the front in the Balkans via Turkey, the US successfully pushed for the front to be opened on the Normandy coast of France.

Tehran Conference (November 1943)

The “Big Three” (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) met for the first time. The date for the Normandy Landings (May 1944) was finalized, and the necessity of a global organization to maintain post-war peace was approved at the highest level for the first time.

Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill at the conference on 25 November 1943

Moscow and Cairo Conferences (October - November 1943)

In Moscow, the trial of war criminals (the foundation of the Nuremberg Trials) was decided, while in Cairo, the fate of the Far East, the expulsion of Japan from its colonies, and the independence of Korea were discussed.

Second Moscow Conference (October 1944)

One of the darkest bargains of the war took place here. Churchill and Stalin practically divided the Balkans into percentages on a piece of paper (e.g., Romania and Bulgaria were largely left to Soviet influence, while Greece was conceded to the British sphere).

The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin.

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

It was decided to divide Germany into four occupation zones and to jointly administer Berlin. A condition was set for the soon-to-be-established United Nations (UN): those who declared war on the Axis powers by March 1, 1945, would become founding members. Following this strategic decision, Turkey symbolically declared war on Germany and Japan just shortly before the war ended.

San Francisco Conference (June 1945)

The United Nations was officially founded with the participation of 51 nations, including Turkey. The most critical decision was granting permanent “veto power” in the UN Security Council to the US, Britain, the USSR, China, and France.

Potsdam Conference (July - August 1945)

This was the final major gathering of the Allies. The focus was not on how to end the war, but on how to manage the peace. The complete eradication of Nazi institutions, the trial of war criminals, and the demilitarization of Germany were finalized.

Paris Peace Treaties (February 1947)

Symbolizing the legal end of the war, this series of treaties redrew the borders of the defeated nations (Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Finland). Under this framework, Italy was forced to cede Kastellorizo (Meis) and the Dodecanese Islands to Greece.

Canadian delegation at the Paris Peace Conference

But what was the ultimate toll of this six-year nightmare that forced humanity to pay the heaviest price it had ever seen? In the next stage of our series, we will examine the political, economic, and social consequences World War II left behind; and take a closer look at the United Nations, founded to protect global peace, along with its specialized agencies that continue to shape today’s world.

The October Revolution: Bolsheviks (Part I)

In the previous blog, we discussed how the world was being divided among Western powers at the Paris Peace Conference. However, one country was absent from that equation: Russia. A new world order was being established, but in the East, not only was a country collapsing; new ideologies were also emerging.

In the 20^th century, the collapse of Czarist Russia started. The fear and unrest of poor peasants and workers, overwhelmed by the harsh conditions under Czarist Russia, in particular, spread gradually across Russia under the leadership of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov. In fact, the first attempt at revolt came in 1905; peasants and workers managed to establish workers' councils in St. Petersburg and Moscow, known for the first time as “Soviets.”

However, the major factor accelerating the collapse of the regime was not poverty alone; it was the war beyond Russia's borders. The destructive conditions of World War I led to widespread famine among Russians, and a critical turning point came at the Dardanelles. During the Battle of Gallipoli, the Entente powers failed to achieve any decisive victory; as a result, Allied supplies and aid could not reach Russia.

Due to the lack of Allied supplies, this destroyed the last hope of the Tsarist regime. The resistance at the Dardanelles acted as a butterfly effect, transforming Russian opposition into an unstoppable force. A great rebellion breaking out on March 8, 1917, was the first spark that ended an empire that had lasted for centuries.

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The October Revolution: The Rise of the Bolsheviks

Unable to withstand the mounting pressure of the uprisings, Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate on March 16, 1917. The Provisional Government, subsequently established by the Duma (the Russian Parliament), proclaimed a republic in September. However, this new government failed to address the people's most profound wound. Its insistence on remaining in the devastating fronts of World War I exhausted the patience of the peasants and soldiers who were already struggling with hunger and poverty.

It was precisely in this chaotic environment that Vladimir Ilyich Lenin stepped onto the stage, crying out the magical slogan the masses had been longing to hear: “Peace, Land, and Bread!” Under Lenin's political leadership and organized by the military genius of Leon Trotsky, the Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace on November 7, 1917, an event that would go down in history as the October Revolution, and seized power.

Brest-Litovsk and the NEP Era

The very first promise the Bolsheviks kept upon coming to power was “peace.” In 1918, they sat down at the table with the Central Powers and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, an agreement carrying harsh terms, formally withdrawing Russia from World War I. Through this treaty, the Ottoman Empire also reclaimed Kars, Ardahan, and Batumi.

Having ended the war abroad, the Bolsheviks now found themselves face to face with a collapsed economy and a bloody civil war at home. Lenin realized that in order for the new regime, which would soon take the name the USSR, to survive, he would need to temporarily loosen the rigid principles of communist ideology. In 1921, he declared the NEP (New Economic Policy), a relatively flexible economic model that allowed peasants to sell their surplus grain on the open market. This move breathed new life into the Soviet economy and consolidated Bolshevik power.

Red Guard unit of the Vulkan factory in Petrograd, October 1917

When the Bolsheviks saw that the rigid practices of “War Communism” were driving the country toward catastrophe, they allowed themselves a necessary flexibility through the New Economic Policy (NEP). Under this policy, the forced seizure of agricultural produce from peasants was abandoned. Small tradespeople and merchants were given room to breathe, the nationalization of small industrial enterprises was halted, and various opportunities were even extended to foreign capital.

However, this was not a return to capitalism; it was a tactical step back. The Bolshevik government continued to keep the “commanding heights of the economy”, banks, large industrial establishments, and transportation networks, firmly in its own hands. This pragmatic move allowed the economy to recover rapidly while giving the new regime the time it so desperately needed.

The greatest obstacle standing before the Bolsheviks as they attempted to rebuild the economy was their political rivals. The revolution had split the country sharply in two. On one side stood the “Whites”, the White Army composed of those who wished to restore the monarchy, constitutionalists, Mensheviks, and the Cossacks, the privileged soldiers of the old regime. On the other stood the Bolsheviks, sworn never to relinquish power. This relentless struggle ignited the Russian Civil War. In December 1917, the Bolsheviks established a secret police organization known as the Cheka (the Extraordinary Commission) to eliminate their rivals, launching a systematic “Red Terror” across the country.

The most shattering event of this period, in which dissenting voices were silenced without mercy, came in 1918. With the stated aim of “completely destroying any hope of the old regime's return,” the Bolsheviks executed Tsar Nicholas II and the entire Romanov family by firing squad, drawing a bloody line under the age of autocracy.

The dissolution of the Constituent Assembly on 6 January 1918. The Tauride Palace is locked and guarded by Trotsky, Sverdlov, Zinoviev and Lashevich

Germany's defeat at the end of World War I handed the Bolsheviks the historic opportunity they had been waiting for. Russia, having largely escaped the chaos of the civil war and consolidated its strength, announced to the world that it no longer recognized the punishing Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, a treaty it had been forced to sign from a position of weakness. The Red Army moved to reclaim the imperial territories it had lost. In the south, it established control over the Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia. However, the resistance in the north could not be broken; the Bolsheviks were compelled to reluctantly accept the independence of Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, and Finland.

The Moscow leadership knew that the oppressive “Russification” policy, the forced assimilation that had been Tsarist Russia's greatest mistake, would plant the seeds of the revolution’s own destruction. From the 1920s onward, they therefore pursued a cunningly calculated strategy. To prevent potential nationalist uprisings against the system, they announced that they recognized the linguistic and cultural autonomy of different peoples.

Beneath this facade of “brotherhood of peoples” and equality, the structure of the state was formally transformed into a federation. Founded by signatures put to paper in the final days of 1922, this vast construct officially took the name the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR, by 1923. A new, red, and colossal actor had appeared on the map.

The Death of Lenin. Generated by AI

The Bolsheviks’ consolidation of power in Russia sent shockwaves of panic through the capitalist nations of the West. The Allied powers viewed this new “Red” regime as an existential threat, fearing that the virus of communism would leap across into Europe. In an effort to contain the spread of Bolshevism, they erected what amounted to a “quarantine wall” between themselves and the Soviet Union. To this end, they extended significant political and military support to Finland, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), Poland, and Romania, effectively attempting to confine the USSR within its own borders.

The Death of Lenin and the Man of Steel: Josef Stalin

By January 1924, an era had closed for the USSR: Vladimir Lenin, the architect of the revolution, was dead. From the bloody and merciless power struggle that followed his death, one man emerged victorious: Josef Stalin, known as the “Man of Steel.” With Stalin's rise to power, the relatively flexible NEP era came to an end, and the Soviet Union entered a period of rigid totalitarian control in which the state brought everything under absolute authority.

In the span of a few years, a centuries-old empire had collapsed, a new ideology had seized power, and the map of the world had been redrawn in red. The first part of our journey ends here. 

In the second part, we will follow Stalin's rise and the iron transformation of the Soviet Union into something the world had never seen before.

Part II: The Basmachi Movement: Against the Soviet Empire (Part II)