The U-2 Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis, and Vietnam: Cold War at Its Hottest

On May 16, 1960, it was decided that a Summit Conference would be held in Paris among America, the Soviet Union, Britain, France, and West Germany. However, this conference could not take place. Just shortly before the planned summit, on May 5, 1960, Soviet leader Khrushchev announced that an American U-2 spy plane had been shot down within Soviet borders. This incident, which went down in history as the U-2 Crisis, led to the cancellation of the conference and once again negatively affected the relations between the superpowers.

A Lockheed U-2 in flight

There is a very clear conclusion we must draw from this: In diplomacy, two plus two definitely does not equal four. While peace is discussed at the table, different dynamics always continue to operate in the background. Perhaps such crises experienced in the past have played a massive role in the extensive development of today's modern intelligence networks.

As a result of the space race that emerged between America and the Soviets, America began producing U-2 spy planes to gather intelligence. On May 1, 1960, one of these U-2 planes took off from the İncirlik Base in Adana (Türkiye) and entered Soviet territory, but was shot down by the Soviets as it descended. In fact, when we think about it in the context of intelligence wars, we can say that this and similar incidents are perhaps still continuing today in different forms.

John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) and Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) in Vienna, Austria in May 1961

The Cuban Missile Crisis

After Fidel Castro took power in 1959, Cuba’s relations with the Soviets strengthened in the years 1960-1961. Meanwhile, starting in 1962, the Soviets began placing missiles in Cuba without the rest of the world knowing. Look at this: people who wanted to save their own country and its freedom suddenly became almost like puppets of the Soviets, starting to place missiles in their country with the range to strike America. I leave the judgment to you. By the way, do not misunderstand, I am not defending America, but these are the historical facts.

In his speech on October 22, 1962, US President Kennedy announced that the Soviets had secretly placed nuclear missiles on Cuban soil. Upon this, the US Navy took action and blockaded Cuba. This situation brought the two superpowers to the brink of a nuclear war. However, the immense danger such a war would unleash, and the realization by the US and Soviet Russia that they had reached a balance in political and military fields, prevented a hot conflict. In exchange for removing the missiles in Cuba, the Soviets demanded that America remove its Jupiter missiles located in Türkiye. America accepted this proposal, and the crisis subsided. Following this massive crisis, the famous “Red Telephone” hotline was established between Soviet Russia and America on June 20, 1963, specifically to prevent misunderstandings during periods of crisis.

American POWs recently released from North Vietnamese prison camps, 1973

The Vietnam War

For the full background on Vietnam's colonial history and the Indochina War, see our earlier post: The End of Empires: Indian Independence, Vietnam, and the African Awakening

An important symbol of resistance that we probably all know, which has been the subject of movies, and where America failed. Following the end of the Japanese occupation after World War II, a war broke out between communists and nationalists in Vietnam, a former French colony. When France withdrew from Vietnam, with the involvement of the United Nations, the region was divided into North and South, with the 17th parallel accepted as the border. The war began with the communists in the North attacking the South and gained an international dimension with America's intervention. As North Vietnamese troops entered the south, America deployed soldiers to the region; however, this development was seen as baseless and meaningless by the American public, drawing significant backlash.

Following talks in Paris, the Vietnam Peace Accords were signed in January 1973. The political rapprochement of the Soviets and China with America played a significant role in the signing of this treaty. Although the Vietnam War initially seemed likely to improve China-Soviet relations, it actually heightened the power struggle within the communist bloc and caused new disputes during the détente period. Ultimately, America failed in its strategy to keep Vietnam divided, and North and South Vietnam united in 1975 to become the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

The Backdrop of the War and Muhammad Ali's Historic Stance

Historical Retrospective • Special Feature

On the political front of the war, the US began peace talks with North Vietnam in Paris in 1968, and the new US President Richard Nixon decided to withdraw American troops from Vietnam. Interestingly, however, while deciding to withdraw, the US military intensified its attacks in order to force Vietnam to the peace table.

This bloody and seemingly senseless war created massive rifts within American society as well. One of the greatest symbols of this was Muhammad Ali (1942-2016), one of the most famous boxers of all time. Despite being drafted into the Vietnam War, the legendary boxer refused to fight and spoke those historic words etched in memory:

"I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong." (The Viet Cong never did me any wrong that I should fight them.)

Muhammad Ali's honorable and anti-war stance caused him to pay a heavy price. He was stripped of his world championship title, his boxing license was revoked, and he was banned from participating in official matches for 3 years. Enduring all of this and later regaining his license to take the boxing world by storm once again, Muhammad Ali passed away on June 3, 2016.

The Spread of Communism: Cuba, China, and the Building of the Eastern Bloc

In our current section, we are turning our focus outside of Europe to examine the spread of communism. When we say communism, there are certain countries that naturally come to mind: Russia, China, Cuba, and North Korea, of course. We have already covered the situation of the Russians, meaning the Soviet Union, in our earlier blocks. Now, we will shift our attention to Cuba. Together, we will see how the impact of the Cuban Revolution continues to be felt in the times we live in and even today.

The Spread of Communism Beyond Europe

When we look at the most significant points where communism took root outside of Europe, the Cuban Revolution is the first to emerge. This grueling process, which began with the Moncada Barracks attack on July 26, 1953, culminated on January 1, 1959, when the dictator Batista was overthrown and the rebels led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara seized power. With this revolution, Cuba became the greatest bastion of communism right under America's nose. Today, despite the end of the Cold War and the passing of its historic leaders, Cuba remains one of the few single-party socialist states in the world. Although the island nation, which has survived over half a century of suffocating US embargos, has slowly begun to open its doors to private enterprise in recent years, the anti-imperialist spirit and symbols of the revolution continue to shape its identity even today.

The biggest fracture on the Asian continent occurred with the Chinese Revolution. Following a bloody civil war that stretched from 1927 and included the famous “Long March” of 1934, communism achieved a decisive victory in this massive geography when Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. However, fast forward to the present day, China has transformed Mao's strictly closed economic doctrines into a brand-new model it calls “socialism with Chinese characteristics.” While unshakeably maintaining the absolute political authority of the Communist Party, China has integrated into the global capitalist market to become the world's second-largest economy. Today, China stands as the US’s greatest geopolitical and technological rival of the 21st century, acting as the primary force bringing the world to the brink of a “New Cold War.”

A similar communist wind blew across the Korean Peninsula. Communists led by Kim Il-sung founded the Workers' Party of Korea in 1946, and on August 25, 1948, the Democratic People's Republic was declared in North Korea. However, following the Korean War that broke out in 1950, the country was permanently divided in two along the 38th parallel; North Korea embraced communism, while South Korea adopted democracy.  

This border remains the most concrete and tragic, still-bleeding scar of the Cold War today. While South Korea has transformed into a global technology, automotive, and pop culture (K-Pop) giant, North Korea remains the world's most isolated totalitarian state under the absolute dictatorship of the Kim dynasty. North Korea's nuclear weapons program is the greatest indicator that the Cold War tension of that era is still actively continuing today at the 38th parallel.

The Construction of the Eastern Bloc

Actually, at this point, let's steer our course back to the mainstream and continue with how the Eastern Bloc was institutionalized.

The Marshall Plan, aimed by the US at economically rebuilding Europe, was defined by the Soviet Union as a “tool of American imperialism.” To counter this plan and strengthen political ties among communist countries, the Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) was established on October 5, 1947, with the participation of the communist parties of the USSR, Poland, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia, France, and Italy. Although presented ostensibly as a step against the Marshall Plan, the true purpose of the Cominform was to coordinate the European communist movement and to take over the functions of the Third International (Comintern), which had been dissolved during World War II.

Another major step taken by the Eastern Bloc against the economic manoeuvres of the West was Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). Founded on January 25, 1949, to support the political framework of the Cominform with economic power, the primary objectives of this organization were to prepare plans based on specialization and cooperation for the economic development of socialist countries, to direct the production and distribution of raw materials, and to collaborate on scientific and technical research.

The Military Shield of the Eastern Bloc: The Warsaw Pact (May 14, 1955)

The most crucial move that completed the military and political umbrella of the Eastern Bloc was the Warsaw Pact. It was established on May 14, 1955, by the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, and Albania (Albania would later withdraw from the pact in 1968). Its purpose was to counter the establishment of NATO by the Western Bloc and to realize mutual defence and cooperation among the Eastern Bloc countries. In short, it took shape against the growing threat of war in Europe following West Germany's admission into NATO and the establishment of the Western European Union, serving as the Eastern Bloc's equivalent to the role the US played in NATO.

Features and Rules of the Warsaw Pact

The main features of this military and political alliance are as follows:

• Members will consult each other on all international issues concerning their common interests.
• The highest political organ of the pact is the “Political Consultative Committee.”
• Members will not enter into any international engagements or undertake any initiatives that contradict the objectives of this alliance.
• The parties will act in a spirit of friendship toward one another, taking their economic and cultural relations to further dimensions.
• This treaty is open to the participation of all other states, regardless of their social and political systems.
• The treaty will be valid for 20 years. If no desire to terminate the agreement is expressed one year before the end of the term, it will be extended for another 10 years.
• If a general European pact planning common security among European countries comes into effect, the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact may be considered.

Up to this point, we have covered the spread of communism beyond Europe and how communism was institutionally solidified among the Eastern Bloc countries. We have thus clarified the Eastern front of that famous bipolar world. We will continue to examine the other critical developments of the Cold War and the responses on the Western front in our third block.