Balkan Alliance, Baghdad Pact, and the Syrian Crisis: Turkey at the Heart of Cold War Diplomacy

In this new section, we will transition along that strategic line stretching from the Balkans to the Middle East. We will focus on regional developments that affected our country's security and foreign policy, such as the Balkan Alliance, the Baghdad Pact, and the Syrian Crisis. After closing this important file, we will set sail for brand-new topics.

Balkan Alliance

The first critical step in this new phase stretching from the Balkans to the Middle East is the Balkan Alliance, or the Balkan Pact, dated August 9, 1954. This alliance was formed when Yugoslavia, the only communist state outside of Soviet control, came together with Türkiye and Greece, whose entries into NATO were already guaranteed. The main goal was to prevent the USSR from expanding into the Balkans and the Mediterranean.

Member Countries of the Balkan Alliance

The rapprochement among the three countries, which began towards the end of 1951, became official with the “Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation” signed in Ankara on February 28, 1953. Under this agreement, the parties decided to consult each other on matters of common interest and to hold meetings at the foreign minister level at least once a year. As a result of these ongoing meetings, the Bled Agreement was signed on August 9, 1954, transforming the alliance fully into a military pact.

In fact, any attack directed at one of them would be considered an attack against all, and all necessary measures, including military force, would be taken. However, things did not go as smoothly as they appeared on paper. From the very first days, disagreements between Turkey and Yugoslavia emerged, and Yugoslavia's interest in the pact began to wane as it mended its relations with the Soviets after 1955. On top of that, when the Cyprus Issue erupted between Turkey and Greece, the positive atmosphere created by the pact completely faded away. Managing to exist on paper until 1960, the pact officially came to an end and became history in June 1960.

Member Countries of the Baghdad Pact

Another major development that fundamentally shook the balance in the Middle East was the Baghdad Pact, established on February 24, 1955. Seeing the decline of French and British influence in the region, a new alliance idea emerged to prevent Soviet Russia from infiltrating the Middle East. Although this idea originally came from the US, it was Türkiye that put it into action, and the pact was initially signed between Türkiye and Iraq. The pact quickly expanded with the participation of the UK, Pakistan, and Iran, but unfortunately, it failed to create the expected unifying effect in the Arab world.

On the contrary, Arab countries other than Iraq strongly opposed the pact, and the Middle East was literally split into three camps: those who joined, those who strongly opposed it (led by Egypt), and those who remained neutral. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, who did not want to lose the leadership of the Middle East to Türkiye and dreamed of uniting the Arab world under his own roof, reacted strongly to this situation. Nasser’s increasing anti-Western sentiment and his rapprochement with the Soviets directly paved the way for the Suez Crisis and ironically made the USSR's job in the region much easier. The real blow that changed the fate of the pact came from Iraq, where the monarchy was overthrown in 1958; the new administration officially announced its withdrawal from the pact on March 24, 1959.

With Iraq’s departure, the headquarters of the organization was immediately moved to Ankara, and its name was changed to CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) on August 18, 1959. In fact, CENTO’s first meeting was held in Washington in October 1959. Although initially established as a military defence alliance, the organization gradually shifted its focus to economic, cultural, and technical cooperation among its members. However, this unity reached the point of collapse when Pakistan and Iran left on March 12, 1979. The very next day, with Türkiye announcing that it respected these withdrawal decisions and that CENTO had effectively lost its function in the region, this alliance, which had marked an era, came to a de facto, if not legal, end.

Syrian scouts on the parade at the year of the crisis

Another major flashpoint in the Middle East was the Syrian Crisis that erupted in 1957. Syria, which had gained its independence from France prior to World War II, was heavily shaken by successive government coups in the 1950s. Amidst this political instability, Syria’s rapprochement with the Soviet Union, driven by Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, disturbed its neighbours. Particularly, when Syria signed an aid agreement with the USSR in 1956, it was met with fierce backlash from Türkiye, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. These countries had come to firmly believe that Syria was turning into a mere “Moscow Satellite.” 

The situation grew so tense that US President Eisenhower sent a message to Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, guaranteeing immediate American weapons aid if Türkiye, Iraq, and Jordan were forced to launch a military operation in response to a potential Syrian attack. Following this assurance, Türkiye’s decision to mass troops on the Syrian border and conduct military exercises brought relations between the two countries to the breaking point.

While the USSR escalated its counter-pressure during this critical period, the region ultimately stepped back from the brink of war. The crisis was gradually resolved thanks to the unwavering support of the US for Türkiye, Saudi Arabia’s mediation between the two nations, and Jordan’s King Hussein softening his stance toward Syria. Another crucial factor in ending the crisis was the historic agreement signed between Syria and Egypt on September 14, 1957. 

The two states decided to form a union under the name of the “United Arab Republic” starting from February 1, 1958. However, this political marriage, which made a massive impact in the Arab world, did not last long; their ties weakened over time, and the union officially ended with a government coup staged by conservative military officers in Syria in 1961.

We are finally putting aside the political maps, the never-ending border conflicts, the secret treaties, and the threats of nuclear war. As we close our Cold War file, we turn our course to perhaps the most fascinating, transformative, and impactful front of this era on our daily lives: Socio-cultural and scientific developments.

Cracks in the Iron Curtain: Tito, Hungary, and the Prague Spring

During the construction of the Eastern Bloc, the Soviet Union expected unconditional obedience from all the countries under its control. However, the first major rebellion against this absolute hegemony came not from the West, but from right inside the “Iron Curtain” itself: Yugoslavia.

The Soviets wanted to turn Yugoslavia into a complete satellite state, just like the other Eastern European nations. But the legendary Yugoslav leader, Marshal Tito, fiercely resisted this subjugation. There was a very justified and powerful historical reality behind Tito’s courage: while communism had been brought to other Eastern European countries by the tanks of the Red Army, Yugoslavia had won its freedom through the epic armed struggle of Tito and his “Partisans” against the German -meaning, by their own blood and strength. Owing no “debt of liberation” to Moscow, Tito could act with a profound sense of independence against the USSR, something the Stalin administration could never accept.

Josip Broz Tito

What completely severed the ties were Tito’s regional ambitions and ideological differences:

The Dream of a Balkan Federation: Tito was not content with merely remaining independent of Moscow; he planned to establish a massive “Balkan Federation” centred in Belgrade, incorporating Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and even Greece (if the communists won the civil war there). This was a direct challenge to Stalin's absolute authority in the region.

National Communism: The Soviets dictated that Yugoslavia perfectly copy the Soviet communist system and policies. Tito rejected this pressure and sought to apply communism according to Yugoslavia's own national, cultural, and economic conditions.

Tito’s uncompromising stance went down in history as the first instance of “National Communism” in the international communist movement. As a result of this crisis, Yugoslavia was dramatically expelled from the Cominform in 1948.

Tito with U.S. President Jimmy Carter in Washington, 7 March 1978

Rebellions Curtain: China, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia

Following Yugoslavia’s declaration of independence, the tremors within the communist bloc did not cease. The Soviet Union’s strict policies and expansionist pressure set the stage for massive fractures and tragic events both in Asia and in the heart of Europe.

Two Giants Face Off: The Sino-Soviet Split

Ties between the two great giants of the communist world were severely strained when the USSR decided to dissolve the Cominform in 1956. This decision irreparably distanced the neighbouring People’s Republic of China from the Soviet Union. Fuelled by ideological differences and a struggle for leadership, this crisis escalated into a heated conflict when Chinese Red Guards besieged the Soviet embassy in Beijing in 1967. By 1969, the armed disputes between the two countries intensified to a peak. The communist bloc was now practically split in two.

Freedom Crushed by Blood: The Hungarian Uprising (1956)

In Europe, the situation was taking a much more tragic turn. Overwhelmed by the oppressive Soviet-backed communist regime, the Hungarian people revolted on October 23, 1956. What started as an innocent student rally suddenly transformed into a massive nationwide revolution. However, the price for this cry for freedom was devastatingly heavy. Stepping in directly to crush the rebellion, Soviet tanks turned the streets of Hungary into a bloodbath. By November 10, the resistance was completely broken, and the Russians had violently solidified their control in Central Europe. The toll of this ruthless intervention was incredibly grim:

·         Nearly 2,500 Hungarians were killed.

·         13,000 people were injured.

·         Over 200,000 people were forced to flee their homeland as refugees.

A Crushed Hope: Czechoslovakia and the Prague Spring (1968)

Twelve years after those bloody days in Hungary, a similar hope for freedom blossomed in Czechoslovakia. With the appointment of Alexander Dubček as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in 1968, a unique period of political liberalization known in history as the “Prague Spring” began. Concepts championed by Dubček, such as “National Communism” and a coercion-free “Humanist Communism,” generated immense enthusiasm among the public. But this spring was very short-lived; fearing that these liberal movements would undermine its own authority, the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia with its armies in August 1968, crushing this quest for freedom under tank treads once again.

Alright, from the beginning of the Cold War up to now, we have completed the origins of the Eastern Bloc, its spread, its internal rebellions, and these tragic events. From the early periods of our Cold War series, we are now shifting our course to the moves of the United States taking Europe under its wing, transitioning toward the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.

The Beginning of the Cold War: Superpowers, Nuclear Fear, and a Divided Europe

While the wreckage of World War II had not yet been cleared, two new giants were rising on the world stage: the United States and the Soviet Union. The emergence of these two nations as superpowers marked the beginning of that long and tense era known as the “Cold War.” (This historic term was first used in 1947 by the American economist and statesman Bernard Baruch).

The primary critical developments that shaped international politics and the fate of the world during this new era were:

The Collapse of Europe: The fact that Europe and its established states, which had been the centre of the traditional balance of power and politics for centuries, emerged from the war with massive devastation, practically in ruins.

The New Superpowers: The filling of this massive political vacuum by the USA and the Soviet Union, who emerged from the war victorious and much stronger, claiming the status of “superpowers.”

The Shadow of Nuclear Weapons: Undoubtedly, the most defining element of this era was the development of nuclear weapons. This terrifying invention continues to directly shape both era and modern international crises. Just as we see today in the ongoing tensions between the US and Iran or in modern warfare strategies, nuclear deterrence is the greatest diplomatic weapon inherited from the Cold War.

With Europe withdrawing from the stage of world politics after World War II, the international order took on a sharply bipolar nature centred around the USA and the Soviet Union. One of the first concrete steps of this polarization was the secret bargain that went down in history as the Percentages Agreement, which took place in Moscow in October 1944. Aimed at definitively establishing spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, this agreement saw British Prime Minister Churchill and Soviet Leader Stalin determine their dominance over Eastern European countries by dividing them into percentages on a simple scrap of paper.

According to this, the fate of entire nations was divided by these ruthless ratios:

·         Romania: 90% USSR, 10% UK

·         Greece: 90% UK (with the US), 10% USSR

·         Yugoslavia: 50% USSR, 50% UK

·         Hungary: 50% USSR, 50% UK (Soviet ratio was later increased)

·         Bulgaria: 75% USSR, 25% UK (Soviet ratio was later increased)

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Leader Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin
Generated by AI

The Berlin Crisis and the Baruch Plan

The first major and volatile crisis of the Cold War erupted in the heart of Germany, the country that suffered the heaviest wounds of the war. Following World War II, just like the rest of Germany, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupation zones by the victorious powers (the US, UK, France, and the USSR). However, the Soviet Union’s aggressive attempt to push Western powers completely out of its occupation zone and its deliberate prevention of German reunification severed all ties. When a compromise proved impossible, the US, UK, and France made a swift move to merge their respective occupation zones, laying the foundations for West Germany (and West Berlin). This situation triggered the historic “Berlin Crisis,” bringing the world to the brink of a new war.

In response to the Soviet Union’s ruthless 1948 Berlin Blockade, which cut off all land and rail routes to force Western powers out of the city, the US and UK launched the Berlin Airlift, one of the most legendary maneuvers of the Cold War. Wanting to save the city without triggering a hot conflict, Allied planes performed an unprecedented logistical miracle by flying day and night for nearly a year to airdrop thousands of tons of food, coal, and medical supplies into West Berlin. Faced with the West's unwavering resolve, the Soviets were forced to lift the blockade in May 1949, and this humanitarian operation went down in memory as one of the greatest psychological victories of the free world against communism.

Nuclear Crisis

The US submitted a proposal to the UN known as the “Baruch Plan” for the control of the atomic bomb, a weapon it had used at the end of WWII to prove its ultimate power to the world. This plan envisioned the creation of an international authority with unlimited inspection powers over nations to monitor the development and use of atomic energy. The US even demanded an alteration of the famous “veto” system in the UN Security Council to ensure that violators of the agreement could not block their own punishment.

However, the Soviet Union categorically rejected this plan. The Stalin administration harboured a highly justified fear: if this plan were implemented, the US would remain the sole “monopoly” capable of manufacturing nuclear weapons, and America, which already heavily dominated the UN, would completely manipulate this newly established atomic commission for its own interests. This mistrust between the US, which was unwilling to share its nuclear secrets, and the Soviets, who rejected this inspection plan, pushed the tension between the two superpowers to its peak, officially igniting the terrifying global nuclear arms race.

The Construction of the Eastern Bloc and the First Cracks

As Europe was divided in two, the fate of the countries behind the “Iron Curtain” had already been sealed. Thanks to the power vacuum created by the war and the military presence of the Red Army, Marxist-Leninist parties rapidly seized political power in countries like Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. The greatest share in the establishment of communist regimes in these countries undoubtedly belonged to Soviet tanks.

However, not all of the Eastern Bloc was under the absolute control of the Soviets. Two countries stepped outside this rule and drew their own destinies: Yugoslavia and Albania.

·        Yugoslavia: Not owing its power to Soviet armies and having driven out the Nazis with its own strong partisan resistance, Yugoslavia (under the leadership of Tito) exhibited an independent communist movement from the very beginning and refused to fall into the Soviet orbit.

·       Albania: Similarly, the National Liberation Front led by Enver Hoxha seized power by its own strength on November 29, 1944. Initially allied with the Soviets, Albania eventually opposed this hegemony and completely broke away from the Soviet Union in 1961.

The other Eastern European countries, apart from these two exceptions, faced direct Soviet intervention (such as tanks rolling into the streets) at the slightest attempt at independence.

Up to this point, we have talked about what the concept of the Cold War means, the general characteristics of the era, the post-war devastation, and how that famous bipolar world (US-USSR) was separated by sharp lines. In other words, we have made quite a “hot” and solid entry into that tense and long Cold War era!

Now, we are moving on to the First Phase of this massive period (1947-1950s). But don't worry; without getting bogged down in details and endless diplomatic crises, we will continue on our way by briefly touching only upon those most critical turning points that changed the fate of the world.